ENCORE: Challenger Disaster | Acceptable Risk | 2

0:00American scandal uses dramatizations that are based on true events. Some elements, including dialogue, might be invented, but everything is based on historical research. A listener note, this episode originally aired in 2024.

0:24It's November 1982, inside the Utah headquarters of Thiokol, the company responsible for manufacturing the rocket boosters for NASA's space shuttle program. NASA project manager Larry Malloy squeezes his bulky frame past the glass door of a large conference room that's already full of Thiokol managers and engineers. Malloy is 48 years old and built like an NFL linebacker. He can be charming, but also intimidating. And in his 20-plus years at NASA, he's developed a reputation for getting things done. Now he's been tasked with managing the shuttle's solid rocket booster program, so he's trying to get up to speed quickly.

1:02Molloy is especially interested in the O-rings that sit on the joints between the various sections of the boosters. While preparing for this visit, he came across a report indicating that one of the O-rings recovered from the last shuttle launch showed significant signs of burn damage. While the O-rings are a relatively simple component, they are critically important. If they were to fail during launch, burning fuel could leak from the booster and set off an explosion that could destroy the entire shuttle. So Malloy is eager to learn exactly how and why the burn damage occurred and whether this is the kind of problem that could delay the next launch of the space shuttle Columbia, which is only just days away.

1:44Malloy takes a seat at the table and pulls a yellow legal pad from his briefcase. He begins scribbling down notes as Diacol's manager in charge of the boosters kicks off the meeting. The manager begins with a history of the booster's development over the past decade. But as he's wrapping up, Malloy realizes he hasn't said anything about the O-rings. So Malloy speaks up. Well, thank you. I appreciate the background. But there's something you didn't mention. What can you tell me about the O-rings? On my flight over, I read a report about some singeing found in the post-launch inspection. Oh, my apologies.

2:16I wasn't trying to be evasive. I just assumed you didn't want to get too in the weeds here on our first meeting. yes, we did find some heat damage on one of the O-rings, but we consider it an anomaly. How sure can you be of that? Well, we've had four shuttle launches so far. Each launch has two boosters, and each booster has multiple O-rings. So at this point, there's probably been about 100 O-rings used in the launches, and only one has shown that level of damage. All right, so 1%. But let's say hypothetically on the next launch, we have another one of these anomalous O-rings. But this time it burns through completely.

2:49What would happen then? Well, each joint is fitted with two O-rings as a redundancy, so in your hypothetical scenario, the second O-ring would be there to do the job. And what if that second O-ring also experiences one of these anomalous burns? Well, in theory, there could be an explosion. But let's say, in the worst-case scenario, one in every hundred O-rings fails completely? Then the odds of two of them being on the same joint during the same launch are astronomical. Maybe one in 10 ,000. Yeah, but one in 10 ,000 isn't zero. We need some reassurances that you're working on a solution here. Well, of course, absolutely.

3:24We're studying the issue and we're looking for ways to improve the design, and we're confident we'll get this O-ring thing resolved. The way I see it, with all the complex, novel technology on the shuttle, the last thing you need to worry about are these simple rubber gaskets. Okay, good. Well, I couldn't agree more. Let's move on. As the Thiokol manager turns to the next item on the meeting agenda, Malloy feels satisfied with what he's heard about the O-rings. and he feels no need to raise the issue with his superiors at NASA. If Thiokol is willing to sign off on the launch, then that's good enough for him.

3:57Malloy knows that NASA is under intense pressure from the White House and Congress to increase the frequency of shuttle launches. So he certainly doesn't want to be the man responsible for any delays.

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5:34From Audible Originals, I'm Lindsey Graham, and this is American Scandal.

5:58In the 1960s, NASA dazzled the world with its engineering achievements, accomplishing things that once seemed impossible and capturing the imagination of the public. But even before Neil Armstrong stepped foot on the moon, NASA's leadership knew the tides were going to turn against them. Their Apollo program was costing the country a fortune. And with the war in Vietnam escalating and the country headed for a recession, sooner or later they knew they were going to have to cut costs. So instead of building customized, single-use rockets and spacecraft like they had been, NASA's engineers started designing space shuttles that could be flown over and over again, like a commercial airplane.

6:37and they were large enough to accommodate cargo missions paid for by the military and private industry. So when the budget cuts inevitably came, NASA would be ready. But in order to handle commercial and military cargo and stick to an aggressive launch schedule, NASA was forced to compromise on the design of their shuttles in critical ways. And in 1981, soon after the maiden voyage of the first shuttle Columbia, an issue emerged with its rocket boosters. Engineers at NASA contractor Morton Thiokol began to find damage in the booster's O-rings, thin gaskets made of synthetic rubber, which were supposed to be sufficiently heat-resistant to prevent fuel leaks in the seams of the boosters.

7:16But the damage they found suggested that the O-rings could fail during launch. A small group of Thiokol engineers tried to raise the alarm, but officials at NASA were desperate to keep shuttle launches on schedule, and executives at Thiokol were determined to meet their demands. So the launches continued, and the space shuttle program inched closer to disaster. This is Episode 2, Acceptable Risk.

7:44It's March 2, 1984, in Huntsville, Alabama. Al McDonald is sitting in a private jet, staring out the window as it touches down at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. McDonald is an engineering manager at Morton Thiokol, and he's here on a mission. He and his colleagues are meeting with Bill Lucas, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, to reassure him that the engineering issues on Thiokol's solid rocket boosters are being addressed. In the 18 months since Thiokol's engineers first found a damaged O-ring in one of their rocket boosters, there has been a growing tension between the company and NASA.

8:18Some recent launches have continued to produce burned O-rings, and the linings on a handful of the booster's exhaust nozzles have burned right through in flight as well. Although these problems have yet to cause any catastrophic failures, NASA is growing impatient with Thiokol's inability to fix them. And there has been talk about the agency opening up their rocket booster contracts to other bidders, jeopardizing Thiokol's business with its most important client. So when his plane comes to a stop, McDonald takes a deep breath, grabs his briefcase and heads for the exit, following behind two of his company's executives.

8:53Stepping out into the humid southern air, he mentally prepares for a grilling from Lucas. But before McDonald's feet have even hit the tarmac, he sees another Thiokol employee sprinting toward the jet and shouting. Between gasping breaths, the employee informs them that there's just been an explosion and fire at Thiokol's manufacturing facility back in Utah, the same one that makes the solid rocket boosters. And the early word is there may be multiple fatalities. McDonald is stunned by the news and horrified that workers in his plant, people he knows, may have been killed. But he's also worried about walking into this meeting and trying to reassure NASA about the safety of Thiokol's rockets just minutes after an explosion at his own facility.

9:34So McDonald looks to his bosses for what to do next, suggesting perhaps they should just head back to Utah. But the executives remind him that the fate of the company may be riding on this meeting, so they decide to move forward with it. As they head into the Flight Center building, McDonald tries to figure out how he's going to spin this to Lucas. But by the time they've taken their seats across from Lucas, they get an update on the explosion. It turns out that several workers suffered injuries, but thankfully no one was killed. Lucas expresses relief, but it's clear he's hardly reassured. He wants to know how NASA is supposed to trust the IACOL to keep their astronauts safe when they can't even protect their own employees.

10:13He also wants to know how this incident will affect future shuttle launches. He reminds McDonald and his colleagues that NASA is under tremendous pressure to stay on schedule, and the next launch is just weeks away. McDonald tries to reassure Lucas that they have enough boosters already built for the immediate future, and they'll do everything they can to get the plant back up and running as quickly as possible. But Lucas seems unconvinced. But just as McDonald feels himself withering under Lucas's pointed questions, the other Thiokol executives interrupt, cutting the meeting short, explaining to Lucas that they should get back to Utah to survey the damage for themselves as soon as possible, and they'll call Lucas with updates that very evening.

10:53But as McDonald rises from his seat and shakes Lucas' hand, he wonders if Thiokol is about to lose its most important client.

11:04While Morton Thiokol rebuilds its damaged Utah plant, the company is able to transfer its rocket booster production to another facility, so that the plant explosion causes no delays to the space shuttle launch schedule. There are also no delays as a result of the burnt O-rings. NASA deems any safety concerns regarding the O-rings as an acceptable risk. But by the summer of 1984, the American public's enthusiasm for space travel has once again begun to wane. It's been more than three years since the first shuttle launch, and NASA has launched 10 more shuttles since then. It's a tremendous feat, but the public has come to see these missions as routine, even boring, which presents a new problem for NASA.

11:46The agency knows their funding ultimately relies on public support, so they continuously look for new ways to capture the imagination of the average American. And the idea they keep coming back to is sending a civilian into space. They consider all types of people, including journalists like Walter Cronkite and even the musician John Denver. But after much deliberation, it's decided that the first civilian in space should be someone who can inspire America's children, a schoolteacher. When the idea is presented to President Ronald Reagan in July of 1984, he seizes on it immediately. With a presidential election just four months away, Reagan is eager to stamp his name on what's sure to be a popular initiative.

12:27So in August, he announces the Teacher in Space program while visiting a junior high school in Washington. And over the next few months, thousands of teachers submit applications to NASA. It seems like everyone who works in education has caught up in the excitement, including a 36-year-old New Hampshire high school teacher named Krista McAuliffe. That November, McAuliffe is attending a conference for social studies teachers at the Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C. She's dashing between meeting rooms with her friend and fellow teacher Eileen O 'Hara, trying to make it in time for a talk on women's history.

12:59McAuliffe teaches a class titled The American Woman, So this is a session she doesn't want to miss.

13:08But as they approach the meeting room, a booth about NASA's new teacher in space program catches McAuliffe's eye. She grabs O 'Hara's hand. Eileen, hold on. I want to check this out. Oh yeah, I saw something on the news about this. So great they're sending a teacher first. Can you imagine? One of us up there in orbit? That'd be an adventure. McAuliffe grabs a brochure, showing astronauts smiling as they float in zero gravity inside a shuttle. I wonder what sort of teacher they're looking for. Probably physics or math, I bet. Why not social studies, Krista? You should apply. No, the odds are one in a million.

13:41No, but I'm serious. I bet even just applying would be an inspiration to your students. Well, that's a good point. And NASA would be lucky to have you. You're the smartest, hardest-working teacher I know. And just think, you'd be a real celebrity. You'd probably get to hang out with Neil Armstrong, go to the White House. Pfft, I don't care about any of that stuff, but it would be great for my students. I tell them every day they can accomplish anything they put their mind to. And this would set a pretty good example. So? So what? So take an application. Okay, I'll take an application. But I'm grabbing enough for you and the other teachers too.

14:14We'll do it all together. McAuliffe grabs a stack of applications and stuffs them into her purse. And as she hurries to the talk on women's history, those images of smiling astronauts continue to run through her mind.

14:31As Krista McAuliffe completes her application process, the pace of shuttle launches continues to accelerate. Over the next four months, there are three more launches, one by Challenger and two by Discovery, the newest shuttle in the fleet. And when Discovery's rocket boosters are recovered from the Atlantic Ocean in January of 1985, one of Thiokol's engineers is especially eager to see how they perform. Roger Beaujolais has been working in the Solid Rocket Booster Division for several years, and he's been trying to make continuous improvements to the safety of their design. But lately, he's been feeling like his superiors are brushing off more and more of his concerns, especially around the reliability of the O-rings.

15:11So when he observes the condition of the boosters recovered from the space shuttle Discovery, Beaujolais feels he has to act. He requests an emergency meeting with NASA, and the very next day, Beaujolais finds himself seated at the head of a large conference table at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville. He is joined by three dozen NASA engineers and managers packed into the room to hear what he's found. So as Beaujolais looks around, he feels a knot in his stomach, knowing they're not going to like what he has to say. The feeling isn't entirely unusual for Beaujolais. He has a reputation for being overly cautious when it comes to safety issues, and sometimes he lets his emotions get the best of him.

15:49But Beaujolais knows the O-ring's better than anybody, and he can't sugarcoat what he's seen. Beaujolais begins the meeting by holding up several large, clear plastic bags. Inside the bags are the O-rings he stripped from Discovery's boosters during yesterday's inspection. And as NASA engineers pass these bags around the room, Beaujolais reads from his notes, outlining what he found. He explains that a properly functioning O-ring should be covered in the yellow grease that was applied between the primary and backup O-rings on the booster's joint before launch. But as everyone in the room can see, the grease is now dark black, and the O-rings are covered in soot.

16:26Not only that, portions of two O-rings have been completely incinerated. Beaujolais explains that in one joint in particular, flames leaking from the booster had burned through both the primary and backup O-rings. This means that for the first time, a flame had reached through the seal to the outer casing of the booster during launch. If this flame had spread much farther, it could have ruptured the shuttle's larger central fuel tank during liftoff, causing the entire vehicle to explode. Beaujolais looks solemnly around the table, trying to gauge if the gravity of the situation is sinking in. He'd like to tell the group that Discovery's astronauts are lucky to be alive, but he knows how a statement like that would be received, so he decides to bite his tongue.

17:09Still, there's another opinion that Beaujolais knows he can't hold back. So he takes a deep breath and tells the room they're probably not going to want to hear what he has to say next. In Beaujolais' expert opinion, the O-rings were damaged by low temperatures. Two days before launch, Florida had experienced a record-breaking cold front, with temperatures dropping as low as 18 degrees Fahrenheit. The shuttle and the solid rocket boosters had already been positioned on the launch pad at the time of the deep freeze, So those low temperatures could have easily cracked the synthetic rubber of the O-rings or compromised the flame-retardant substance used to seal them.

17:47The room falls silent. And then, after what feels like an eternity, Beaujolais hears a single voice speak up from the corner of the room. A NASA official tells Beaujolais that he's right. Nobody wanted to hear that.

18:04Hey, Dan Taberski here. I'm a podcast host, a journalist, and now with my newest project, the author of my own manifesto. Well, it's a manifesto about manifestos. My search for inspiration in a world that feels more infuriating, more out of its freaking mind with each passing hour. Manifestos are a call to action, an artful scream. They capture our anger and they try to do something with it. This is my attempt to take the manifesto back from mass shooters and nihilists and return it to its rightful place. with the warriors, the visionaries, the regular folks with just the right amount of crazy.

18:39I compare notes with radicals, secessionists, internet trolls out for a laugh, and punk singers screaming their guts out, all trying to turn their anger into the world they want to see. Listen to Manifesto wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of Manifesto early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.

19:04in American history. I am Tom Holland. And I am Dominic Sandbrook. And we are the hosts of The Rest is History. And we've just released a series on four of the founding fathers. One of them is Benjamin Franklin, the elder statesman of the revolution. And another is Thomas Jefferson, the man who loved liberty, but who also kept slaves and slept with one of them. And we're looking at George Washington at Valley Forge and the famous duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. So here, the full series at The Rest is History.

19:45In February 1985, Morton Thiokol engineer Roger Beaujolais starts gathering scientific evidence to prove his theory that cold temperatures could have damaged the O-rings on the space shuttle Discovery. At Thiokol's headquarters in Utah, Beaujolais and his supervisor Al McDonald collect data from all of the previous rocket booster tests and shuttle launches. They also run new lab tests on O-rings, exposing them to a variety of temperatures. These tests show that in temperatures under 75 degrees, the soft rubber rings become hardened and take longer to expand into the gaps in the booster's joints.

20:21And when temperature falls below 50 degrees, the O-rings never fully expand at all. For Beaujolais, this is all the proof he needs that colder weather is what is causing the O-rings to fail. But the upper management at Thiokol and NASA decide that Beaujolais' data is inconclusive. And when it comes time for the next launch in April of 1985, Thiokol's official risk analysis report to NASA states that the O-ring's performance is acceptable. With that reassurance, NASA moves forward. Its next three launches go off without a hitch. But then, in a July 1985 launch, the shuttle Challenger experiences a different issue, one that nearly ends in catastrophe.

21:02Just as the Challenger is about to leave Earth's atmosphere, one of its three engines shuts down. The astronauts are barely able to get their crippled shuttle into orbit, avoiding an extremely dangerous emergency landing. The Challenger returns safely to Earth a few days later, but this incident leaves the astronauts and mission control workers shaken. Fortunately for NASA, a bigger space-related news story is distracting the public. That same month, NASA selects the first participant for its Teacher in Space program. In a televised ceremony at the White House, Vice President George Bush announces that from a pool of more than 11 ,000 applicants, NASA has chosen New Hampshire high school teacher Krista McAuliffe.

21:46Overnight, McAuliffe is famous. She receives hundreds of calls from reporters desperate to interview her and movie producers angling for the rights to her life story. It's an overwhelming experience for a humble social studies teacher and mother of two. McAuliffe applied to the program out of a sincere desire to inspire his students. Becoming famous was the farthest thing from her mind. But just weeks after the announcement, she finds herself getting the star treatment on one of America's most popular talk shows.