ENCORE: Challenger Disaster | Launch Day | 3

0:00American scandal uses dramatizations that are based on true events. Some elements, including dialogue, might be invented, but everything is based on historical research. A listener note, this episode originally aired in 2024.

0:24It's January 27, 1986, at 6 p.m. in Titusville, Florida, a few miles from NASA's Kennedy Space Center. Al McDonald, the director of Morton Thiokol's Space Shuttle rocket program, is staying in Titusville at a colleague's house. He's in town for the latest mission of the Space Shuttle Challenger, which is expected to be the most watched launch in the shuttle program's history, thanks to the presence of Krista McAuliffe, the high school teacher who's about to become the first civilian in space. There's so much anticipation around the launch that McDonald couldn't find a hotel room. Everything for miles around Cape Canaveral is booked.

1:02But McDonald is not sharing in that excitement. Instead, he's sitting alone at his colleague's kitchen table, holding his head in his hands. He's just received a call from someone at Thiokol's headquarters in Utah, urging him to postpone tomorrow's launch. According to the weather forecast, overnight temperatures at Cape Canaveral are expected to plunge below freezing, and that's a big problem. McDonald's company, Thiokol, is responsible for manufacturing the thin rubber O-rings that seal the joints on the shuttle's two rocket boosters. And based on their testing, Thiokol engineers have determined that the O-rings become unreliable at temperatures below 50 degrees Fahrenheit.

1:41If even one set of them were to fail during launch, the entire shuttle could explode. Given this risk, delaying the launch should be an easy call to make. But McDonald knows it won't be. Thanks to the presence of McAuliffe, this Challenger mission has become a media circus. and it was already postponed once this morning after a series of other technical issues. McDonald knows that NASA is under intense pressure to avoid any further delays and that asking the agency to postpone a second time could jeopardize Thiokol's relationship with their biggest client. So McDonald is going to need to present NASA with data showing why a postponement is necessary.

2:24McDonald picks up the phone and dials Bob Ebeling, a senior thiacol engineer back in Utah. Hello, this is Bob Ebeling. Hey Bob, it's Al McDonald here on the Cape. Hey Al, how's the beautiful Florida weather? Not so beautiful. They're saying it could be 26 degrees during the launch window tomorrow. That low? You might as well be launching from Chicago. Well, that's why I called. Sounds like you and the other engineers in Utah are unanimous that under these conditions, Tomorrow this launch needs to be canceled. Yeah, that's right. I was already worried sick about it, but below freezing, huh? I'm right there with you, but we need to get the decision makers at Diacol and NASA to agree.

3:01All right, what do you need? I need to have your guys estimate how cold O-rings will get inside the boosters if the temperature outside is 25 degrees, 30 degrees, 35 degrees, etc. And then calculate how the O-rings will perform in each and every scenario. All right. Then I need you to come up with a definitive minimum temperature for the O-rings to function properly and ensure a safe launch. Well, I can tell you right now, if it's anything close to those temperatures in the forecast, the O-rings are not going to form a tight seal. Yeah, but we need a firm, specific number we all agree on, and we need to stick to it.

3:34Okay, I understand. I'll put it together. I appreciate it, but it's going to be tough. There's going to be a big conference call between everyone at Thiokol and NASA at 8 p.m. tonight. You've only got about two hours to gather the data. Oh, wow. Okay. Well, we'll do the best we can. Don't waste any time putting together any fancy slides. Just get the numbers squared away. We need to make sure this is an engineering decision, not some management decision. Understood, Al. I'll have those numbers for you as soon as possible. As McDonald hangs up, he's already thinking about the next call he has to make.

4:07And he's dreading it. He needs to talk to Larry Malloy, the hard-headed NASA manager who oversees the rocket booster program. McDonald has a feeling Malloy will be the most difficult to convince in this upcoming meeting, and he needs to begin easing him into the idea of canceling tomorrow's launch. The lives of seven astronauts could depend on it.

4:44is changing human lives. Follow This Is Actually Happening wherever you get your podcasts. Does it bother you that the world is on fire? Do you also often find yourself choking on your own rage? Maybe you too perpetually feel like screaming bloody freaking murder into your own pillow. Well, hop in, rabble-rouser. We're going hunting for a manifesto. Listen to Dan Taberski's manifesto wherever you get your podcasts.

5:16From Audible Originals, I'm Lindsey Graham, and this is American Scandal.

5:40In January of 1986, NASA was ready for the most high-profile launch yet of its four-year-old space shuttle program, the Teacher in Space mission, which would send the first American civilian Krista McAuliffe into orbit aboard the Challenger. But behind the scenes, there were warning signs that the mission might not go according to plan. As far back as four years ago, in 1982, engineers had identified a design flaw in a key component of the shuttle, the synthetic rubber gaskets called O-rings, which formed the seals between different segments of the rocket boosters that propelled the shuttle into orbit.

6:15After several shuttle launches, when the boosters were recovered, the O-rings had been partially burned away by leaking rocket fuel. So far, the leaks had not caused a catastrophic failure. But at Morton Thiokol, the contractor that had built the rockets, some engineers became convinced that with each passing launch, NASA was playing Russian roulette with the lives of its astronauts. While trying to find a solution to the O-ring issue, Thiokol engineer Roger Beaujolais identified the likeliest cause, cold temperatures, which made the synthetic rubber brittle and unable to form a tight seal. But when he presented his concerns to engineering colleagues at NASA, he was told, we don't want to hear that.

6:54One of the space shuttle's primary functions was to deliver military and communication satellites into orbit and prove that space travel could be as routine and cost-effective as commercial air travel. So NASA was under intense pressure to stick to an ambitious schedule of more than a dozen launches a year. And to them, the known flaw in the O-rings constituted an acceptable risk. But when it became clear that NASA was planning to launch the Challenger in temperatures below freezing, engineers realized they had to take a stand. This is Episode 3, Launch Day.

7:32It's 8.15 p.m. on the night of January 27, 1986, at Morton Thiokol headquarters in Utah. Inside a glass-walled conference room, Robert Beaujolais and a dozen of his fellow engineers are seated around a table, along with a handful of Thiokol executives. In just a few minutes, they'll be joining an emergency teleconference with NASA, and the tension in the room is palpable. Beaujolais is on a mission tonight, to convince the executives at NASA and his own company to cancel the Challenger launch, but he's not entirely confident in the materials he has to make his case. Beaujolais and his colleagues have only had a few hours to prepare for this meeting, so all they've managed to cobble together are some hand-drawn charts and rough estimates.

8:13They've also been left with no time to coordinate with each other and rehearse what they're going to say, and time has run out. As the Thiokol executive clicks on the speakerphone, the teleconference begins. Beaujolais' fellow engineer, Brian Russell, starts by giving an overview of the history of the O-ring issue, and then it's Beaujolais' turn to speak. He directs everyone's attention to a handmade sketch illustrating the basic design of each joint on the rocket boosters, which has been faxed over to NASA for review. Beaujolais reminds everyone that the O-ring's function is to expand quickly to seal the booster joint and prevent a fuel leak.

8:49To do this effectively, each O-ring has to be flexible enough to expand within milliseconds. And if it does not, and superheated gas begins to escape through the joint, It can burn through the O-rings, making the leak progressively worse. Beaujolais goes on to point out that tomorrow morning is projected to be 20 degrees colder than any shuttle launch in history, and at temperatures that cold, the O-rings become less elastic, rendering them incapable of doing the one thing they were designed to do, expanding quickly to seal the booster joint, preventing a leak and quite possibly an explosion. As Beaujolais ends his presentation, he sits back in his chair, hoping that his message has finally gotten through.

9:31But before he can take a breath, he hears a familiar, skeptical voice over the speakerphone. Larry Molloy, the manager of NASA's Solid Rocket Booster Program, is joining the call from the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama. And he asks if Beaujolais has any more data to share. Beaujolais says he doesn't, but he remains firm on his key point. The numbers he does have clearly show that the colder it gets, the worse the O-rings perform. Malloy pauses for a moment before announcing that Beaujolais is just making assumptions. He says that Diacol's data is thin and inconclusive, and he notes that in other cool weather launches, most of the booster's joints performed fine.

10:11Beaujolais admits that Malloy is technically correct. Not every O-ring launched in cold weather has shown signs of damage, But he reminds Malloy that NASA bears the burden to prove that a launch is safe before signing off on it. But Malloy snaps back, declaring that the burden of proof is on Diacol. If they want to halt the launch, then they have to prove it's not safe. And unless they can do that, the launch will remain on schedule. Beaujolais is left speechless. Malloy seems to be changing NASA's safety policy just hours before launch. Beaujolais looks around at his fellow engineers for help.

10:46but they appear to be just as stunned as he is. The emergency teleconference continues for another hour, with other Thiokol engineers stepping in to offer their analysis and opinion. All of them are unanimous in their support for canceling the launch. And then finally, after all the discussion, NASA asks Thiokol's management for their official recommendation. Bob Lund, Thiokol's vice president for engineering, says that based on the available data, he would not recommend launching at temperatures below 53 degrees. And Joseph Kilminster, the vice president for the rocket booster program, agrees.

11:21But NASA's Larry Malloy still won't consent to canceling the launch. He continues to poke holes in the Thiokol engineer's reasoning, citing multiple examples of occasions when the O-rings performed fine in cold temperatures. He points out that the subcontractor that makes the O-rings says that they can perform in temperatures as low as minus 20 degrees. Malloy also accuses the Thiokol engineers of trying to change their launch criteria at the last minute, and notes angrily that if he accepts this 53-degree cutoff, he could wreak havoc on NASA's entire schedule of upcoming shuttle launches. With attention on the call growing by the minute, Kilminster suggests that his team of Thiokol engineers and managers take a break to discuss the issue internally, and puts the speakerphone on mute.

12:07Sitting at the head of the table, Kilminster looks around the room. As a senior leader on the booster program, he knows his opinion carries a lot of weight. But he feels trapped between a rock and a hard place. He understands the engineer's position and sides with them. But as an executive, he also has to weigh his company's business concerns. If his team refuses to recommend a launch at the last minute and creates a new precedent based on temperature, he could be jeopardizing Thiokol's entire relationship with NASA. Senior Vice President Jerry Mason, the highest-ranking Thiokol executive in the room, speaks first.

12:42He argues that yes, the O-rings have shown damage in previous launches, but they've been able to avoid total failure so far. Each joint has a secondary O-ring, and those have always functioned successfully as a backup. But hearing this, Roger Beaujolais leaps from his seat, storms across the room, and slams a photo on the table in front of Mason. It's a picture of both the primary and secondary O-rings from a launch last January, and both are clearly singed, covered in black soot. Kilminster is still leaning towards siding with the engineers, and he hopes Beaujolais' outburst is enough to sway Mason.

13:18But Mason just silently glares at Beaujolais until the engineer finally returns to his seat. After nearly half an hour of debate, Mason announces that he's going to poll the room on whether or not to recommend a launch. But he explains the engineers will not be getting a vote. Only the vice presidents will be deciding the challenger's fate, which means Mason, Kilminster, Lund, and fellow executive Cal Wiggins have a decision to make, and it has to be unanimous. As they go around a table, Kilminster feels a knot growing in his stomach. Mason votes first, saying he thinks they should go ahead with the launch.

13:54Then Mason turns to Wiggins, who quickly agrees with Mason, and Kilminster isn't surprised Wiggins is Mason's loyal sidekick. Then Mason turns to Kilminster for his vote. He pauses to consider, knowing the engineers are right, tomorrow's launch is too risky. But now his boss is staring him down, and Kilminster realizes that if he votes no, Mason could hold him personally responsible for losing Thiokol's most important contract. So Kilminster lowers his head, unable to look his engineers in the eyes, and quietly says he thinks they should launch. Now the final vote comes down to Lund, and Mason tells him to take off his engineering hat and put on his management hat.

14:35It's time to step up and make a business decision. Kilminster watches as Lund puts both hands into the air, palms facing forward like a soldier surrendering at gunpoint. Then Lund says he agrees with Mason they should recommend the launch. Kilminster feels nauseous, knowing there's no turning back from here. He unmutes the speakerphone and announces to his counterparts at NASA that while the Thiokol executives remain concerned about the temperature, they agree that the engineers' data is inconclusive, and they are now recommending the Challenger launch should go forward. Larry Malloy is pleased to hear this, but others within NASA are surprised by the sudden reversal.

15:16Looking to provide cover, NASA executive George Hardy tells Thiokol that he'll need to have their official recommendation put into writing. So they look to Al McDonald, the lead Thiokol manager on the ground in Cape Canaveral, to lend his signature. But McDonald remains adamant that the launch should not go forward and refuses to put his name on the recommendation. He explains that if anything goes wrong with the shuttle tomorrow, he does not want to be the one who has to answer it. So any signed recommendation will have to come from Thiokol headquarters in Utah. home. Joseph Kilminster and Bob Lund exchange a look.

15:51Just moments ago, they reversed their position on the launch, and now they're being pressured to sign their names to that decision. But ultimately, they know they have no choice. After the call ends, Kilminster and Lund stay behind to draft the document recommending that NASA proceed with the Challenger launch as scheduled. And in the end, Kilminster is the one who signs his name to it. By now, it's nearly midnight, and at Cape Canaveral, temperatures are continuing to drop. And on launch pad 39B, NASA crews are attempting to prepare for the morning's launch in record-breaking cold. But when Charlie Stevenson, leader of the Kennedy Space Center ice team, arrives at the launch pad, he's shocked by what he sees.

16:33Icicles 18 inches long cover the launch tower. Standing on the top level, at the same height as the Challenger's nose, he has to hold tight to the railing just to prevent himself from slipping on the ice beneath his feet. With a launch still scheduled for 9.30 a.m., only about five hours from now, Stevenson needs to start cleaning the ice from around the shuttle quickly. He steps into an elevator and rides it 20 stories down to the ground level.

17:03Arriving at the bottom, he's met by one of his ice team colleagues. As they shiver in the cold wind, Stevenson prioritizes what to tackle first. All right, let's take a look at the sound suppression troughs first. Copy that and watch your step, boss. I nearly broke my neck between here and the launcher platform. The sound suppression troughs sit below the rocket nozzles and are filled with water that absorbs the acoustic shockwave of the rockets at liftoff. But when they arrive at the first trough, Stevenson is stunned to discover that the water has a thick sheen of ice on top. Oh man, we could play hockey on this.

17:37How is this even possible? Didn't they add the antifreeze? About 1 ,400 gallons worth. Apparently it didn't do the trick. Man, there's no way they're going to actually launch this thing today, right? No, not a chance. I saw nearly two-foot icicles hanging from the top of the gantry. When those things get shaken loose during launch, they're going to cut through the thermal protection tiles like a knife. But launch control wants us to go through the motions, so we've got to get on with it. Stevenson and his team of technicians begin breaking up the ice and using long-handled nets to skim the chunks out of the troughs.

18:09It's exhausting work made all the more challenging by the frigid cold. When Stevenson can no longer feel his fingers, he stands back to examine their progress. Oh, God. It's looking better. Let's get some temperature readings for the log book. Stevenson's colleague hands him an infrared thermometer, and Stevenson holds it beneath the exhaust nozzle at the bottom of the left booster. Wow, 25 degrees, but I guess that's to be expected. It's about the same as the ambient air temperature. Let's check the other booster. The two men walked gingerly across the icy launch pad to the right booster, careful not to slip.

18:44Ah, man. This one is 8 degrees, but the boosters are identical. How is this one 17 degrees lower? That can't be right. The thermometer must be malfunctioning. This is getting ridiculous. The launch has to be scrubbed. Meanwhile, we're out here killing time until the bosses wake up and make it official. I guess we've got to take a team up to the top and start clearing off the icicles. As his colleague heads toward the elevator, Stevenson looks up at the launch tower, and beside it, the Challenger glittering in the moonlight. From his earlier inspection, Stevenson knows that most of what's glittering is ice.

19:21Nearly every support beam, walkway, and cable is covered in a layer of the stuff. And in all his years at NASA, he's never seen anything like it. Stevenson checks his watch and tries to guess how many more hours it will be until the manager arrives on site and sees how bad the ice is. because he feels sure that once they do, they'll make the only call they can to cancel the launch.

19:48Hey, Dan Taberski here. I'm a podcast host, a journalist, and now with my newest project, the author of my own manifesto. Well, it's a manifesto about manifestos. My search for inspiration in a world that feels more infuriating, more out of its freaking mind with each passing hour. Manifestos are a call to action. an artful scream. They capture our anger and they try to do something with it. This is my attempt to take the Manifesto back from mass shooters and nihilists and return it to its rightful place with the warriors, the visionaries, the regular folks with just the right amount of crazy.

20:23I compare notes with radicals, secessionists, internet trolls out for a laugh, and punk singers screaming their guts out, all trying to turn their anger into the world they want to see. Listen to Manifesto wherever you get your podcasts. Audible subscribers can binge all episodes of Manifesto early and ad-free right now. Join Audible in the Audible app or by subscribing on Apple Podcasts.

21:06No, maybe just tell them about the guest stars like Richard Kind, Carrie Coon, Jimmy Fallon, at all. But they were in it. And if you don't listen to them, then I will cut off your tongue, then cut off your head, and then put the tongue in the head hole. Aw, you tried. Listen now exclusively on Audible and Donald the Audible app today or off with your head! I'm kidding.

21:45In the early morning hours of January 28, 1986, many of the people at Cape Canaveral expect the Challenger launch to be canceled, including the astronauts. But the official call has yet to be made. Some at NASA are especially concerned about the icicle still coating the shuttle's launch tower. They're also worried about the gusty winds blowing offshore, which might make it difficult to retrieve the solid rocket boosters after they fall into the Atlantic. But NASA's rocket booster program manager, Larry Malloy, expresses no concern. He meets with his boss, Bill Lucas, director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, and shows him Thiokol's official launch recommendation.

22:24Malloy explains that while the Thiokol engineers had initially expressed reservations about how the O-rings might perform in the cold weather, they ultimately all agreed to go forward. So despite the low temperatures, NASA proceeds with its pre-launch protocol, staying on track for a morning liftoff. And just after 8 a.m., Challenger's commander Dick Scobie is joined by the six other astronauts for the elevator ride 20 stories up to the entrance of the orbiter. As the elevator begins to ascend, Scobie grins with anticipation. When he woke up this morning and saw the weather report, he wondered whether the launch would be postponed.

23:01He wasn't happy at the thought of having to spend more time sitting and waiting in the astronauts' pre-launch quarantine. But now it appears today's launch is actually going to happen, and he's excited to get the show on the road. Scobie squints in the bright sunshine as he exits the elevator with his crew right behind him. He's greeted by Johnny Corlew, NASA's quality insurance inspector. Scobie gives Corlew a big smile and notes that the skies are crystal clear, a beautiful day to fly. Corlew seems surprised by this comment and remarks on the unusually cold temperature, but Scobie shrugs him off, determined not to let anything dampen his optimism.

23:38He's even bought a little gift for Corlew, handing him a bolt with a red ribbon tied around it, a joke referencing the faulty bolt that caused the cancellation of yesterday's launch. Corlew laughs and shakes his head. Then the crew helps Scobie and the other astronauts into their flight harnesses before leading them to the orbiter's entrance hatch. Once strapped into their seats inside the orbiter, Scobie takes a moment to check on the other astronauts. As a veteran test pilot and astronaut, he's well accustomed to the jitters that creep in just before a flight. And he's especially mindful of Krista McAuliffe, who's only been with NASA for a few months and will be making her first launch ever today.