The Māori

25:35They spread across the country, integrating into Maori modes of life and even marrying in and having children. Meanwhile, commercial activity intensifies. Colonial merchants diversify away from timber and start hunting seal. The oil from these beasts is in high demand in Europe, while the furs can be traded in China for profitable tea. The sealers begin to build rudimentary European-style houses, and hopefuls from all over come to New Zealand in a bid to make their fortunes. There are settlers from Britain, Ireland, and elsewhere in Europe, but also Pacific Islanders and indigenous Australians.

26:16By the first decade of the 19th century, business is thriving, and when the seal trade suffers a downturn, whaling takes its place. Seeing the chance to benefit, some Maori join sealing and whaling expeditions and prove exemplary crewmates. Others provide services on the ground, growing crops or rearing animals to sell. A few gain passage on European vessels, and in 1806, King George III of England even gives an audience to a chief named Te Pahi, the first Maori to make it to London. Not everyone receives such warm welcomes, being disregarded as curiosities or exploited for their labour. Initially, trade and commerce was based on good relationships between Māori and European.

27:08And Māori, curious by nature, were keen to understand the European world. and it wasn't actually that long, the turn of the 19th century, that Māori were making their way overseas. Sydney primarily, but others made it to Britain. And they were, you might even call them, intelligence-gathering missions to go out and explore and understand the European world. And trade was a way that Māori could learn about the world. Māori communities become more familiar with modes of European customs, from clothing, language and literacy, to technology, tools and all facets of domestic life. There is a good deal of intermarriage too, bringing the cultures still closer together.

27:54But there is a darker side. With hundreds of sailors on shore at any one time, and no means of formally regulating their conduct, bad behaviour becomes an increasing problem. It's drinking, it's violence. And of course, there was sex and venereal disease became noticeable. All of those things that you can imagine were taking place. And Māori came from a society where there was rules and particular ways of behaving. And Māori were tolerant, but there was always a line that shouldn't be crossed.

28:36As concern grows about the impact of the European settlers, known as the Pākehā, on Māori ways, some Māori leaders lean on their contacts to exert some positive influence. Māori had travelled overseas, they'd been to Britain, they'd been to Sydney, and they saw the power, I suppose, of Britain. it would have been quite overwhelming or quite bewildering for those chiefs who travelled to London to observe what they observed. And so three missionaries were able to request that the British crown come and sort out their people. The first Christian mission, a Church of England one, arrives in New Zealand in 1814.

29:20But there is no immediate surge of converts. Maori culture has its own distinct belief system with a pantheon of gods and a focus on the sanctity of the natural world and the importance of genealogy. Nonetheless, by the end of the 1820s, some start to adopt Christianity, even if in adapted forms that mold around traditional beliefs.

29:45A more instantly desirable import from the British is the flintlock musket. At first they are traded to be used in hunting. But from the early years of the 19th century, Maori begin to arm themselves in volume, terrorising rivals up and down the country. By the 1820s, it has descended into a full-scale arms race. The resulting so-called musket wars reach their peak only in the next decade. By their end, upwards of 20 ,000 Maori are dead and some tribal groups entirely wiped out. It was a traumatic period in Māori history, but I always say it was a short period in time, relatively to the entire length of time that Māori had been in New Zealand.

30:33So sort of a 15, 20 year period. And it certainly had outcomes for Māori, there was a decrease in population. You saw people migrate from one area to another, which changed the intertribal dynamics of the areas that those people migrated into.

30:56The fighting eventually subsides, in part because all the major tribes now operate under fear of mutually assured destruction. But the cost has been devastating. Back when Cook visited in 1769, the population stood at over 100 ,000. Thanks to the violence, as well as new diseases and the rising infertility they bring with them, that figure has fallen to 70 ,000. Soon, concerned by reports of lawlessness among British subjects and the growing presence of rival colonial powers, the Crown decides to formalize its role in New Zealand affairs. But if the Maori hope it might signal an upturn in their fortunes, a shock awaits.

31:42Until now, the government in London has been reluctant to commit. The truth is establishing colonies is expensive, and the preference had been to let commercial interests run things. But recently that started to change. There was a petition that was set by the Northern Chiefs in 1831 and it was asking for Britain to come and to protect or extend its authority over its own subjects in New Zealand. And then Britain was kind of hesitant to act again, but they did send a guy called Busby. He was what they call the resident. And his job was to kind of settle arguments between iwi or tribes, but also to try and control Europeans.

32:34With the British government now officially represented by Busby, in 1835, a French aristocrat launches a speculative move to establish an independent state in a region of the North Island called Hokianga. To ward off this foreign competition, Busby brings together several Maori chiefs and persuades them to sign a document that claims to be a declaration of the independence of New Zealand. To celebrate, he leaves for a lavish feast, though the chiefs are provided nothing more than a cauldron of porridge. The plans of Busby's French rival collapse, but the ground is laid for a more formal consolidation of Anglo-Mauri relations in the future.

33:15The moment comes in early 1840, when private companies are eyeing up land purchases for themselves, with a view to buying cheap and selling at a vast profit to future settlers. Concerned that Busby is not able to deal with this commercial threat single-handedly, Britain's colonial office sends William Hobson to assist Busby in formally instituting New Zealand as a crown colony A vast marquee is erected on the front lawn of Busby's house at Waitangi Inside the great tent are hundreds of senior Maori, along with a contingent of Hobson's own officials, a number of Pakia locals and several missionaries.

33:56The task of the British is to negotiate a formal transfer of sovereignty. Hobson begins reading in English from a sizable document before him, then another man repeats his words, or a version of them, in Maori. The document is a treaty, hastily written in English just a few days ago and translated even more speedily last night.

34:22It contains just a few clauses, but each of utmost importance. The first, according to the English version, says that Maori chiefs cede to the Queen of England all the rights and power of sovereignty over their territories. Clause 2, however, guarantees the Maori the right to keep their lands so long as they want them. But should they wish to sell their land, they must offer it to the crown, which in turn grants them its protection and what it describes as all the rights and privileges of British subjects. But not only is the language vague, the original and the translation do not always directly correlate.

35:01In particular, where the English version talks about transferring sovereignty, the Maori version uses the word kawana tanga, which is derived from the word for governor. The way that it was presented by Southern Britain was that it was a session of sovereignty. so that Māori ceded sovereignty to the Crown, whereas Māori saw it as a continuation and an acknowledgement of their own authority. But Māori recognised that the Crown still had responsibility for their own subjects. In other words, some understand the Treaty to allow Māori to continue much as they always have, with the British Crown having sovereign responsibility for the 2 ,000 or so of its own citizens.

35:51There is no immediate consensus, but after discussions among Maori leaders, some 45 are prepared to assent to the treaty. Others add their approval over the coming months, but it's far from unanimous when on the 21st of May 1840, Hobson proclaims Britain's sovereignty over the whole of New Zealand. To begin with, it is to be a dependency of New South Wales in Australia. Then the following year, it is established as a colony in its own right, with Auckland its capital. In this haphazard way, British rule begins. Almost immediately, the Crown begins buying up Maori lands on a vast scale. That clause in the treaty about selling to the Crown is known as the pre-emption clause.

36:38Theoretically, it's a protection against land sharks like the New Zealand Company. Led by a controversial Englishman named Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a speculator who has already served prison time for kidnapping a wealthy heiress, the business hoped to become the de facto power in the region, just as the East India Company has been in India. But the preemption clause sees to it that his scheme is stifled, and the company soon hits the rocks. Yet it's still not good news for Maori interests. But what happened in reality was that the pre-emption clause was used to drive the purchase price of land down.

37:16Of course, if you've got no competition, you've got no market, you can drive the price down. And so that was used to acquire huge amounts of land for very little price. As part of these sell-offs, dispossessed Maori are guaranteed designated areas of land known as reserves in return. But they are often established on poor quality ground and without any provision to make them productive. There are frequent disputes over deals, too. For pakea buyers, it's a straightforward matter of exchanging land deeds. But for Maori, there is much greater complexity, with historical ownership of land undocumented and wrapped up in traditions of inheritance, occupation and conquest.

38:01It is often unclear who has the right to sell land and on whose behalf. In March 1845, in the northern settlement of Kororareke, a local chief named Hone Heke leads some 600 armed men to the town's guard post. His frustration with the British has been growing for years, and their recent move to tax ships from which Maori had previously collected duties has pushed him over the edge. At his order, all the men on guard duty are slayed. He personally chops down the pole from which the British flag flies It's the third time he has done it Colonial troops quickly swarm into the area and force Hone Heike's retreat By then, some 60 people lie dead, over half of them Maori All the while, the Pakia population surges in number As new settlers arrive to take their chances Conversely, Maori numbers are in sharp decline largely because of their lack of immunity to imported diseases.

39:06Influenza, measles, tuberculosis, whooping cough and dysentery are ravaging the population. Where once Maori dominated in number, the pendulum is swinging. In 1858, the Pakeha population overtakes Maori numbers for the first time, with figures of 59 ,000 and 56 ,000 respectively. And though programs are put in place aimed at assisting Maori communities, for example, schools, hospitals, and agricultural schemes, the transfer of land out of Maori hands is now measured in tens of millions of acres. Soon, the British will buy up virtually all of the South Island, and although some 80 % of the North Island remains in Maori hands for now, the British come to dominate there too.

39:52The sense of decline is overwhelming. One attempt to rebalance this is the emergence of Kinchitanga, or the Maori King movement. The idea is to unite the disparate iwi under one leader, with a view to dealing with the crown and its people as equals.

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41:20It's June 1858 in Ngarua Wahia, a settlement on the North Island at the confluence of two rivers. The shrill songs of pigeons and cuckoos fill the air. In the shadow of a range of heavily forested hills, a Maori teen from the Waikato Tai Nuiwi picks his way through a great crowd, alive with excited chatter. He is happy to see a boy he recognizes from another iwi and goes over to greet him. Close to the front now, the youth cranes his neck for the best view of the event, something he has been excitedly awaiting for many days. He can almost feel the collective sense of anticipation in the air, until a reverent hush descends at the behest of one of the elders.

42:07With only the song of birds and the rushing of the river breaking the silence, from one side of the clearing an elderly figure is led towards an ornately carved wooden throne. The teen can tell that the old man, a chief by the name of Teferofero, is struggling to see, but at last he is seated. His face, densely adorned with tattoos, there remains something deeply impressive about him, especially as he now dons a spectacular korowai, a traditional cloak decorated with feathers. Another man steps forward, the tomuaki, or kingmaker, who is to conduct the formalities of this coronation service. Beside the men, a flag is hoisted.

42:50Bearing a cross in its top left-hand corner, it also depicts several stars, to reference a section of the southern star constellation that illuminates the night sky in this part of the world. The Tumuaki leads the crowd in prayers and incantations, the boy joining in at the appropriate moments. Now he anoints the king-elect with oil, then picks up a copy of the Bible and lifts it above the elderly man's head. For several minutes he gives a sermon, solemnizing the occasion. Other high-ranking members from different iwi take their turn to make speeches and offer congratulatory words to the new monarch.

43:30The youth catches the eye of the boy next to him. They may come from different iwi, but they are now united under the umbrella of one ruler. With the speeches concluded, a hush falls again. Then, from somewhere in the crowd, a rhythmic chant begins. The sound swells as hundreds join in, stamping their feet and striking their chests in unison. It is a haka, one of the fierce, proud and magnificent ceremonial dances chosen for its symbolism of inner strength and unity. From his carved throne, the new Maori king presides serenely over his people's joy and defiance. More dances and songs follow when the crowd comes alive, the earnestness of the ceremony giving way to something more joyful.

44:24Though the arrival of the Pakea just under a century ago began the consolidation of a single Maori identity, now they have a king of their own to bring them into even closer union.

44:38The establishment of a monarch, however, is not enough to change the reality of life on the ground or to prevent a surge in violence between the colonizers and colonized. Another disputed land deal sparks a major conflict in Taraniki in 1860, but that in turn is dwarfed by the scale of fighting a few years later when colonial troops attempt to bring down the Kinji Tanga movement. Over nine months, some 14 ,000 British soldiers, augmented by allied Maori warriors, take on an enemy force of 4 ,000. By the campaign's end, many hundreds lie dead, with Maori forces suffering the greatest losses. The British government then exact further punishment by confiscating more of their land, including the most fertile.

45:25This proves the biggest single campaign of what becomes known as the New Zealand Wars, which only come to an end in 1872. Meanwhile, the Maori population continues its freefall while Pakeha numbers rise, not least during a series of gold rushes during the 1860s. By the middle of the 1890s, there are estimated to only be about 40 ,000 Maori left, against perhaps 700 ,000 Pakeha, a monumental shift in demographics that leaves many wondering whether soon there'll be any Maori left at all.

46:01Thankfully, though, rumors of extinction prove misplaced. As the 20th century dawns, there is a revival in Maori numbers, driven in large part by immune systems at last better trained to deal with illnesses of foreign origin. But they continue to suffer a shortage of land, resources and opportunity, as well as a very definite secondary status to the Pakeha. For a while, there have been attempts by various Maori groups to organize politically. Since 1867, Maori men have had the right to vote, and women are granted the same right in 1893, when New Zealand becomes the first country to grant universal female suffrage.

46:40There are also four seats in parliament reserved specifically for Maori representatives, although with 70 Pakeya members, it's hardly enough to affect real change. The Maori king remains in place, but he too is relatively powerless, and an attempt to set up a Maori parliament as a counterpoint to the national one also fails to really take hold, coming to an end in 1902. So it is that the emphasis shifts away from trying to turn back the tide and towards preservation of Maori identity and function successfully in a Pakeya-dominated system. New mainstream political figures with Maori heritage emerge, like James Carroll.

47:23Serving in government as Minister of Native Affairs for several years until 1912, he even steps up to act as Prime Minister on occasion. Then the world wars provide a gruesome opportunity of sorts. Some Māori enlisted. These were often from tribes who had fought alongside the British during the wars of the 19th century. And then fast forward to World War II, and Apirana Ngata is one of New Zealand's great politicians. He lobbied the government to establish a Māori-only battalion. and many Māori signed up to the battalion. And he talked about the price of citizenship. And he said that if Māori want to be considered New Zealanders, then they should also fight alongside other New Zealanders in the Second World War.

48:23In May 1941, the sun beats down on Crete in the Mediterranean. The Allied garrison here is under sustained assault by German forces, and a young soldier is preparing to do battle. He is one of 700 Maori to be sent here, of a total 16 ,000 who have signed up to fight against the fascists. Although he feels a long way from home, there is duty to do here and honor to be won. Along with the rest of his 28th Maori Battalion, he lines up alongside even more troops from Australia, With German fighters swarming the streets, he fixes a bayonet to the end of his rifle and awaits the order. It is almost a relief when it comes and he hurls himself forward in a charge.

49:10By the end of the encounter, 280 Germans lie dead and 100 Maori. He is one of the lucky ones who make it back to base, ready for evacuation tomorrow. No one can say that the Maori haven't done their bit After the war, there is a large-scale exodus away from rural areas into the towns and cities But unemployment is rife and much of the available housing is low-grade Urbanization brings its own social problems including deprivation and rising racial tensions as Maori and Paakea populations used to largely inhabiting their own spaces now live close together By the 1960s, the global climate of protest and activism is reaching New Zealand.

49:57Public figures like Fina Cooper have long been banging the drum for change, but with civil rights movements gaining ground worldwide, they have new wind in their sails. Through actions like the Great Land March of 1975, they demand redress for some of the sins of the past. and so we had protests through the 60s, 70s and 80s in New Zealand. One of the outcomes of the protest movement was the establishment of an independent commission of inquiry, the Waitangi Tribunal, that was tasked with investigating the Crown's actions as they related to the Treaty of Waitangi. So from 1975 when it was set up through to 1985, the tribunal could only hear claims against the crowd from 1975 onwards.

50:48But in 1985 there was an amendment to the Act which allowed the tribunal to look at claims all the way back to 1840.

51:03The government agrees a series of settlements from the 1990s onwards together worth several hundreds of millions of dollars to compensate for the historical loss of land and resources. This provides Iwi with an injection of funds to improve conditions, though it's far from enough to address all the challenges before them. In 2004, the government faces a no-confidence vote over legislation to nationalize the seabed, which some protesters claim infringes Maori ancestral rights. Somehow arriving at a balance between the complex claims and counterclaims claims of New Zealand's different social groups is a problem for the ages.

51:41In April 2025, a vote is due in New Zealand's Parliament on a contentious bill which proposes to redefine long-held principles related to the Treaty of Waitangi. It centers on a concern among some that ideas such as co-governance in certain areas of public life and quotas designed to address Maori under-representation in many sectors are in fact creating a two-tier system in which non-Mauri people are disadvantaged. But the bill's opponents say it threatens to tear down years of work to promote Maori rights and identity. It has already spurred mass protests involving tens of thousands of demonstrators, prompted two Maori MPs to perform a haka in parliament, and seen another MP suspended for calling one of the bill's proponents a liar.

52:28But now, when the votes are counted, the bill is rejected by 112 votes to 11. Raucous cheers erupt from both the floor and the gallery of the chamber. It's a decisive victory, but one that has reopened old wounds. It speaks to the Maori struggle to secure its position as equals in a country it was the first to inhabit. Over the centuries, New Zealand's Maori communities, families, leaders and individuals have defined the land, imbuing it with a proud, rich culture distinct from any other. And despite the mixed impact of European colonisation, Māori traditions, language and people remain a vital and valued part of New Zealand life.

53:11What is the situation now? We presently have a right-of-centre coalition government that has demonstrated or done what many Māori would say has sent the relationship back. between Māori and the Crown decades. But what people have said to me is, these are bad times for Māori. However, we've been through bad times before and we've been able to navigate those times.

53:46Next time on Short History Of, we'll bring you a short history of Rasputin. I'm afraid it's become a sort of comic creation in a way. hasn't he? Because what with the rah-rah Rasputin and all that and pieces of creation like most people are of people around him. So I feel a lot was projected onto him. He was just a sort of good time guy. He loves wine, women and song. That's next time.

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