The Vatican

28:12He soon moves his court to Avignon in France, where it will stay until 1377, when reformers and political leaders insist that the seat of St. Peter must come home to the site of his martyrdom. But the return is rocky, and the transition volatile.

28:32A year after moving back to Rome, the cardinals, most of whom are French, choose a new Italian Pope. His harsh temperament and sweeping anti-corruption reforms quickly alienate those who put him there. In response, they claim his election is invalid and was made under mob pressure. They elect a rival pope who returns to Avignon. Now there are two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon. The split spirals into a European crisis known as the Western Schism. France, Scotland and Spain support Avignon, while England, the Holy Roman Empire and much of northern Italy back Rome. In 1409, a third pope is elected at the Council of Pisa with the intention of healing the rift.

29:22But this only makes matters worse. It's not until 40 years later that a new, universally recognized pope is chosen, re-establishing the Holy See in Rome. But the schism has shattered the image of the Pope as a singular moral authority. With trust in the institution shaken, the Vatican's long-term project is now not only governance, but rebuilding credibility. The factionalism and political interference that fueled the schism runs deep, and in the years that follow, nepotism flourishes, as powerful families fight to install their sons on the throne of St. Peter. what had happened through the middle ages you'd had some dreadful popes and the real reason was because the families were behind them for example Lorenzo the Magnificent had his son made cardinal in the hopes that he would become pope and he did become pope and it became Leo X 10th, complete nepotism.

30:28However, that nepotism, it arose because of family ambition, usually aristocratic or wealthy families. But the popes then wanted to surround themselves with family members because they thought they were the only ones they could trust.

30:47Enmeshed as it is with these elite families, and richer than ever, the Vatican pours its wealth into art and architecture, and the Renaissance, already thriving in Florence, now begins to flourish in Rome itself. Throughout the late 1400s, the Vatican physically transforms. The medieval complex around old St. Peter's Basilica expands into a Renaissance masterpiece, including the establishment of the Vatican Library and the renewal of its palace. Pope Sixtus IV commissions the Sistine Chapel, destined to become one of the most iconic spaces in Christendom. Initially constructed between 1477 and 1480, later popes add to its splendor, with grand art and architecture by Tuscan masters.

31:36Michelangelo's frescoes and Raphael's tapestries adorn its ceilings and walls, establishing the chapel as the ceremonial heart of the Vatican. But it is under Pope Julius II that the Vatican undergoes its most dramatic transformation yet.

31:55Born Giuliano della Rovere, he takes his papal name in homage to Julius Caesar, and sees himself as a warrior pope, determined to expand and defend the power of the role. Julius wanted to defend the papal territories which were under attack from so many sides He was the one who decided to knock down the old Basilica of Constantine built in the 4th century and to erect a new basilica in a more modern style the style of the Renaissance the style of the rebirth

32:35Julius turns the Vatican into a fortified hub of administration and pageantry. His pontificate also sees the establishment of the Swiss Guard, an elite military unit they serve as the Pope's personal bodyguards and monitor access to Vatican buildings. Visitors may enter St. Peter's Basilica, but the Pope's official apartments, private rooms, and the Sistine Chapel remain closed to the public. Concerns for the pontiff's security also lead to increased reliance on the Passetto di Borgo, a protected passageway built in the 13th century that links the Vatican to a fortress outside the city walls. For many Romans, the Vatican now feels separate from the city, set apart in its wealth, its might, and its beauty.

33:25With the increasing funds that the papacy now had at its disposal from the riches from the New World coming from the exploration and the navigations of the explorers, Rome was made even more beautiful. The election of the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, who took the name Leo X, brought the papacy to the apogee of its temporal glory. Leo was, if you like, the equivalent of the son of Donald Trump, a man of extraordinary wealth, one of the wealthiest families in Italy, coming to the position of Pope, the top job in the Catholic Church. And so Leo spent unrivaled sums of money making the Sistentapol even more beautiful.

34:18The Church's artistic patronage reaches dazzling heights. The Vatican's splendor is designed to awe the faithful, but there are some who see only extravagance and materialism. In the middle of this golden age of the papacy, when the great artists were combining their talents to produce magnificent frescoes, magnificent statues to adorn the city of Rome, a young German friar, Martin Luther, arrived in the city in 1510. Rather than be impressed by the beauty of the city and the wonderful churches and chapels in honor of the saints, he was scandalized by the worldliness of the papal court. He despised the selling of positions of power, of positions within the curia.

35:12After visiting the Vatican's soaring domes, Luther returns to Germany disillusioned. He writes his 95 Theses, a list of grievances against clerical corruption, which he nails to a church door in Wittenberg. In particular, he rejects what are known as indulgences, promises of salvation or a reduced time in purgatory issued by the church in exchange for money. He claims that only scripture should determine faith, not papal decree. At first it's a theological protest, but others also see in his rejection of Rome the opportunity for greater autonomy, no more submission to the whims of the Pope, and freedom from the taxation that comes with it.

35:57Luther's radical ideas quickly spread thanks to the newly invented printing press. His challenges ignite the Reformation, a broader movement that rejects Rome's authority and many Catholic doctrines. The clash between the Vatican and the new Protestant churches spark decades of religious conflict across Europe, which will leave millions dead by the end of the century. It's against this backdrop that the forces of the French Charles V march on the Vatican in 1527. Charles is a staunch Catholic, but his bitter quarrel with Pope Clement VII, who has sided with France against him, leaves the papacy dangerously exposed.

36:40But in turn, his mercenary army, many of whom are Protestants, are frustrated with poor leadership and a lack of pay. So what was intended as a mission to exert pressure on Clement turns into a full-scale sacking of the city.

36:57Uncontrolled, the troops storm the Vatican, loot St. Peter's Basilica, and slaughter the Swiss Guard on its steps. A brutal demonstration that the Church is no longer untouchable. But after a period of rebuilding, the Vatican fights back. In 1545, the Pope convenes the Council of Trent, launching the Counter-Reformation. Its goals are clear. Defend Catholic doctrine, restore discipline, and reassert the power of the Church. The reforms inspire a potent visual response. Across Catholic Europe, especially in Rome, churches rise in a bold new architectural style. Baroque is dramatic, theatrical, intended to provoke a spiritual response.

37:47Upon this new stage, the Vatican proclaims its message. Rome remains the heart of Catholicism, unshaken at the center of Christendom.

38:02For the next few centuries, the Vatican's influence fluctuates as European empires rise and fall. The Napoleonic Wars of the early 1800s reshape the continent and strip the Church of territory and treasures. The decades that follow see a growing nationalist movement, seeking to bring the whole of Italy under one monarch. The unified Kingdom of Italy is declared in 1861. Rome holds out under papal rule until the end of the decade, but when it is finally annexed in 1870, Pope Pius IX refuses to recognize the state that seeks to absorb his lands, calling himself a prisoner in the Vatican. Formerly the ruler of the papal states and the king of Rome, Pius IX withdrew into the small area of the Vatican, no more than 108 acres around the Basilica of St.

38:56Peter's, complaining that although he was the monarch of Rome, he was now a prisoner of the Vatican. He claimed all he wanted was a piece of land no larger than a handkerchief from which to care for his flock. The self-imposed isolation continues for nearly 60 years. Successive popes refuse to step outside Vatican grounds, a gesture combining political protest, spiritual posturing, and an assertion that the papacy will not bow to state powers. By the early 20th century, the stalemate has dragged on for decades, but any notion of a truce is suspended by the dawn of a worldwide conflict. Remaining neutral throughout the First World War, the Vatican contributes tens of millions of lira in aid, and though Benedict XV appeals for peace, it falls on deaf ears.

39:56After the war, negotiations begin in secret between Vatican officials and the new Kingdom of Italy under Benito Mussolini's government to settle what they call the Roman question, the political standoff over sovereignty. By now, both sides have something to gain. The Pope wants to secure the Church's independence in a rapidly changing world. Mussolini wants the Church's approval for his regime. On February 11, 1929, the two sides sign the Lateran Treaty, recognizing Vatican City as an independent state with the Pope at its head. It's a radical transformation. Once an enclosed part of Rome, the world's smallest, fully sovereign state now has internationally recognized borders and a constitution.

40:46Encircled by its ancient walls, which mark its boundary with the city of Rome beyond, it comprises just over 100 acres. St. Peter's Basilica, the square, and sections of the Vatican museums are still open to the public, but the city is now sharply divided from the rest of Rome. Its permanent population numbers only a few hundred, made up mostly of priests, nuns, officials, and the Swiss Guard, who live in barracks, apartments, or dormitories within the palace complex. Despite its diminutive size, it runs with surprising efficiency. The Vatican has its own flags, stamps, currency, and soon its own radio station, Radio Vaticana, which launches in 1931.

41:31There is a pharmacy to serve its residents, a petrol station, and even an in-house printing press for the official newspaper. But what it doesn't have are farms, factories, or natural resources. There is no airport, and only a token railway line, making it entirely dependent on Italy for resources from food to water to energy. There are no taxes here, and certainly no elections. There are no passports unless you're appointed to a role by the Pope. It is not a country in the traditional sense, but a theocratic enclave, a spiritual headquarters that also functions as a miniature bureaucracy. The buildings reflect this dual purpose.

42:15Inside St. Peter's, pilgrims still kneel in candlelit prayer, but next door, secretaries type official notices in government offices.

42:29This is not yet the Vatican of mass tourism and giant security queues. It is quieter, more austere, though intensely political in its infancy. Every decision made will help define how this unique new state will operate for the century to come. By the late 1930s, Europe is once again heading for war. Though Vatican City is now sovereign, it is physically and politically surrounded by fascist Italy. Though the Holy See restates its neutrality when war breaks out in 1939, as the conflict unfolds, the Pope's position becomes increasingly controversial. If you were to tell the truth, the difficulty with the position of the Pope by now is that The Pope is now an international figure who's broadcasting to cinemas on Pathé News, and everything he says is broadcast on radio and television.

43:25He did his best to care for as many prisoners of war, in particular of the Jewish people within the states and within the convents and abbeys under the control of the Vatican, even giving over the papal residence. They couldn't be caught because this was extraterritorial. But still, the accusation remains. He did not do enough to accuse Hitler and the other belligerents for the evil which they were carrying out, the extermination of entire populations and races.

44:07After the war, the influence of the Vatican takes a new form, projected through media, diplomacy and culture. The Pope's visits to other countries draw millions of devotees. Vatican radio broadcasts in dozens of languages, and televised masses from St. Peter's Square extend the Church's message to every corner of the world. Entering an age of mass media, rising secularism, and global political realignment, the Church faces growing pressure to adapt. Once closed and cautious, the Vatican opens up. In 1962, a new Pope calls for a new beginning. In the 1960s, Pope John XXIII, who came from a poor farming family in the north of Italy, called a gathering of the Church, the Second Vatican Council, which took place in Rome between 1962 and 1965.

45:04The liturgy was reformed. Mass was now celebrated in the vernacular rather than in Latin. The Word of God, the Bible, was given greater emphasis, and a series of reforms took place throughout the church. It was also followed by a period of turbulence. People who didn't want to see change, who didn't like development, rebelled against these changes. But over the last number of decades, this has become more settled, and people have understood that the church continuously has to do, as Pope John had said, throw the windows open to the breath of the Holy Spirit.

45:48As the Church looks outward, the Vatican changes behind the scenes. In 1970, Pope Paul VI modernizes Vatican security, disbanding ceremonial units but retaining the Swiss Guard, now joined by a new central security office. And while he is the first Pope to experience air travel. It is one of his successors who becomes the first truly global ambassador of the Vatican. In 1978, following the death of Pope Paul VI and the 30-day pontificate of Pope John Paul I, a Slav was elected a son of Poland from behind the Iron Curtain, John Paul II, at a papacy of 26 years, marked by reassessing the Church in the light of the Second Vatican Council, and an extraordinary series of 203 intercontinental journeys which brought him to almost every country on the globe.

46:51His visits draw millions of devotees, but for those unable to travel to see him, there is now a Vatican television center to bring the pontiff directly to their homes. But this era of unprecedented visibility comes with new levels of scrutiny. With the advent of the digital age, the Vatican must now run in full view of the world, and as the 21st century begins, it finds itself engulfed in controversy. Towards the end of the pontificate of John Paul II, as he became more infirm due to Parkinson's disease, a scandal erupted within the church, the scandal of clerical child abuse and of vulnerable adults.

47:37For decades, if not centuries, this had been concealed and covered up from the eyes of the people. but now thanks to the media and new social platforms the victims had a voice and the victims could be heard. The Holy See had to respond. The institution was being damaged but people's faith and their Christian belief was also suffering and in many places shattered. The people felt betrayed by their bishops, their priests, their leaders. is their church.

48:17The news devastates trust in the church, and in the Vatican as its seat of power. By the time John Paul II dies in 2005, aged 84, the scandal is still snowballing, and his failure to act is seen as a dark mark in his pontificate. Now the weight of the controversy passes to his successor, Pope Benedict XVI. As previous head of the Vatican's doctrinal office, Benedict had been at the center of many internal debates. In his new role, he inherits a church at a moment of reckoning. With public outrage still escalating, he is at least more proactive than his predecessor, launching inquiries and defrocking almost 400 priests in just two years for abusive behavior.

49:04But according to his critics, he drags his feet and prioritizes the preservation of the institution over justice for victims. Reform is demanded from both within and beyond the clergy, and there is bitter disagreement between the Pope's closest advisors. Longstanding ideological clashes and financial disputes simmer beneath the surface, undermining his leadership. Then, in 2012, those internal tensions explode into public view. Hundreds of confidential documents appear in the press, exposing infighting, dysfunction, and financial mismanagement at the heart of the Vatican. The world holds its breath to learn who is behind this audacious breach of trust.

49:54It's early evening on the 23rd of May 2012. Within the walls of Vatican City, a warm breeze drifts across the neatly swept cobbles of the Cortilla de Belvedere. In a second-floor apartment overlooking the courtyard, the Pope's butler, Paolo Gabrielli, is stirring sugar into a cup of coffee. Beside him on the counter is a half-folded newspaper. But he can't concentrate on what it says. There's too much on his mind. He takes his drink into the next room, where a printer sits on a small wooden desk. Freshly inked paper slides into the tray. Each sheet is stamped with a bold warning, marking it out as confidential Vatican correspondence.

50:41There are memos, letters to and from senior clergy, warnings, accusations. The printer finally falls still, and the only sound is the muted hum of evening prayers from the television next door. Paolo lifts the latest copy, still warm beneath his fingertips. He checks the lines, then adds it to a folder thick with documents. Some are tucked covertly between the pages of devotional texts. Paolo wraps the folder in a wide elastic band and tucks it behind the bottom drawer of the desk. He is just about to push the drawer closed when he freezes. Certain he's heard something in the hallway. Eyes on the crucifix above his bed, he crosses himself quickly, then slides the drawer back into place.

51:33And it's just in time, because seconds later there's an urgent knock at the door. Raised, serious voices demanding entry. Knowing he has no choice but to admit them, he does as he's told. In the hall are three members of the gendarmerie, the Vatican Police Corps, stern in their dark blue uniforms. One of them hands him a warrant before striding past into his private quarters. Paolo steps aside, head bowed. The search begins. Behind books, beneath floorboards, the officers find the first of what will amount to hundreds of stolen pages, letters, bank statements, and faxes. some dating back years.

52:17One officer lays out the evidence on the table. Another heads to the wardrobe and brings out a box where he finds even more folders marked with sticky notes in a careful hand. The desk drawer is pulled out, revealing the hidden folder at the back, as well as a gold nugget and a check for 100 ,000 euros gifted to the Pope by donors. Now an officer approaches Paola, handcuffs in hand. With a sigh, the butler extends his wrists and feels the cold metal snap around them. He allows himself to be escorted from the apartment and outside. Past the Vatican archives. Past the gates of the Apostolic Palace.

53:00Past colleagues, who now avert their eyes. By noon, the news will spread beyond these walls. The Pope's butler has been arrested inside the smallest country in the world for leaking the secrets of one of the most powerful establishments in history. Another breathtaking moment for the modern Catholic Church, dogged by scandal.

53:31Arrested and detained within Vatican walls, Paolo Gabriele is one of the few lay people in modern history to be imprisoned inside the city. He confesses without resistance and claims he acted not out of malice, but out of love for the Church. His goal, he insists, was not to betray the Pope, but to open Benedict's eyes to the corruption and dysfunction festering around him. Pope Benedict XVI later pardons Gabriele, but the damage is done. The so-called Vatiliques scandal marks a turning point, the collapse of Vatican secrecy in an age of digital transparency. The modern world presses in, forcing deeper questions about honesty, justice, and the future of the Church.

54:17Within a year, citing age and frailty, Benedict XVI steps down, the first pontiff to do so in six centuries. Immediately, crowds gather in St. Peter's Square and around screens worldwide, waiting for white smoke to rise from the Sistine Chapel chimney, the centuries-old signal that a conclave has concluded and a new pope has been elected. After five ballots, Pope Francis is elected, the first Jesuit pope and the first from the Americas. He leads with an agenda for humility, reform, and social justice. Breaking with tradition, his chosen residence is the Domus Sanctae Matai, a guest house within Vatican walls, rather than the customary papal home of the Vatican Palace.

55:08From here, he pushes the church into new arenas, confronting climate change, corruption, and global inequality. But while the Vatican shifts, many traditions remain unchanged. Women, for example, are still barred from becoming bishops or voting in papal conclaves. As such, they remain locked out of much of the church's decision-making. Meanwhile, the city itself adapts, slowly. The Vatican Museums and Sistine Chapel welcome record visitors each year. Restoration teams work to preserve its landmarks. Inside the Vatican Library and Archives, ancient manuscripts are digitized, opening their pages to the world.

55:52The city's footprint does not expand, but tourism reshapes its streets. Pilgrims have the choice of more cafes, shops, and information points, while airport-style security barriers funnel crowds through checkpoints. In 2025, Francis, beloved by millions, passes away, and within a few days the conclave's white smoke billows once again. Cardinal Robert Prevost is elected Pope Leo XIV, the first North American Pope, another milestone for an institution that is both ancient and continually renewing. For almost 2 ,000 years, Vatican City has stood witness to martyrdom and empire, intrigue and scandal, grandeur and humility.

56:41Its walls have withstood siege and sack, its chapels have inspired generations, and its archives have carried memory across centuries. Despite being the world's smallest country, it has shaped some of history's biggest moments and continues to thrive as a place of pilgrimage to this day. After 2 ,000 years of the Christian faith, the Catholic Church continues to bear a beacon of light, even though sometimes it flickers and fades, in a world of darkness and of fear, of violence and of intemperance. In the heart of Rome, there still is a small little square of 108 acres, centred around the Basilica of St.

57:31Peter's, built over the believed tomb of the Apostle Peter, the Bishop of Rome, his 266th successor still carries a beacon of hope, still holds out a hand of friendship and a message of trust in a better future and decent reconciliation.

58:08Next time on Short History, I will bring you a short history of Oscar Wilde. I think all sorts of things that Wilde speaks to about the freedom of the artist, about self-expression, and a sort of socialist, anarchist, compassionate, humanitarian, creative individualism. I think there's an idealism there that carries on speaking, that has a beauty to it. and a value to it. I constantly meet students and in every year there will be students for whom Wilde personally means a lot and a way in which he's helped them find themselves. And as a writer to be able to do that, you know, over a hundred years later is incredible, but he does.

58:53That's next time.

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