Listener Questions #14

23:48Help me out. All right. This is a great question. And it's sort of similar in spirit to the previous one, right? Getting a microscopic understanding of a common experience, in this case, the common cold. So let's see if biology can provide the insights to give you that sense of understanding, even if we are talking about mucus. Well, let's give it a shot. All right. So it gets complicated right from the beginning. The common cold, according to the Centers for Disease Control, this is defined as a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract. OK. OK. But it turns out it's not caused by just one kind of virus.

24:23It's caused by something like over 200 different kinds of viruses. But depending on the time of year, between 50 to 80 percent of the common colds that people have are caused by a group of viruses called the rhinoviruses. So we're going to answer Tim's question based on data that we've gotten in labs that have looked at rhinoviruses. So this is like asking, why is my house infected with insects? Well, it turns out there's lots of different kinds of insects that could infest your house. That's right. That's right. And so to answer your question without taking too many lifetimes, we need to narrow down on an example.

24:57So we're narrowing down on the rhinoviruses. And so for those of us who are not biologists, remind us, like, what is a virus and how does it work? What is its plan? Yeah. So what viruses do is when they get inside of you, they have this way of injecting themselves into your cell. So they've got like some machinery that helps them move around. And then when they get to a cell, they clamp down and then they inject genetic material into the cell. This is amazing. It's crazy. I can't believe this is real. It sounds so mechanical. It does. Yeah, I know. Sometimes biology is just as good as sci-fi. Maybe better.

25:31So they hijack the cell's machinery and they get the cell to start replicating the virus. And this is part of where Tim's question comes in. As the virus replicates, sometimes mistakes are made. And cold viruses tend to not correct these genetic mistakes very often. And so we're going to get to that in a little bit more detail later. So the host cell replicates the virus many times. And then the virus breaks out of the cell and goes and completes that cycle again. So the element of the cell that it's taking over is the bit where it replicates the genetic material. That's what the virus can't do for itself.

26:05Yes. So this is like a hacker breaking into a publishing house and getting it to print his personal manifesto instead of whatever it was going to print otherwise. That's right. Yep. Print its pamphlets over and over and over again. And then through some mechanism that sort of breaks the metaphor, it sneaks into another publishing house and does the same thing over and over and over again until you stop sneezing. anyway so it goes through this process and it is finding cells in particular in like your nasal passage and your lungs and it's replicating in there and as it replicates your immune system sort of amps up and starts attacking it and this cold process can last for about a week and so you get a buildup of virus particles and then your immune system starts to get it in control and the density of virus goes down over time.

26:53And so if I've had the common cold and my immune system has figured out how to combat it, why do I then get the common cold again the next year or three weeks later when my kids come back with a different one? Well, that great question brings me to mutation rates. So as I mentioned, the virus doesn't correct mistakes as often as, for example, human cells do. And so the question that we want to ask here to really address Tim's question is how many mutations do you tend to get and how much do they build up? So I found estimates that the mutation rate is you get something like 10 to the negative three to 10 to the negative five mutations and 10 to the negative three is one in a thousand, one in a thousand.

27:33Yeah. Per nucleotide per genome replication event. Don't worry about all of those numbers. The point is that a virus is about 7 ,200 pieces long. And each time it replicates, you usually end up with about one mutation on average in that genetic code. So it's getting the cell to replicate it, but it's not a perfect copy. That's right. And then it doesn't get corrected. And so that error goes on to the next cell and that gets replicated over and over again. So already the initial virus that infected Tim, all of its little babies likely are different than it was by one nucleotide. That's right. And so then the question you want to ask yourself is, does that matter?

28:12And I think a lot of the time it's not going to matter. So a lot of mutations don't change the kind of protein that ends up getting made, or they don't have any meaningful change based on this one little base that flips to a different value. Right. It's not like the common cold suddenly becomes a completely different disease. It's not measles all of a sudden with one flip or something. Right. But, you know, as Tim noted in his question, if this is happening many, many times in your body, and then it's happening to many, many people, these changes can add up over time. Amazingly, this all seems to also be temperature dependent.

28:43And I have a lot of friends who will say, things like, oh, don't go outside without a coat on. It's cold out and then you're going to get sick. And that's not quite how it works. But there is some evidence that at colder temperatures, cold viruses do replicate more quickly in mice. I don't think this has been done in humans. It's always in mice. But it's not because that's better for the virus in some way, which I think is implied when they're like, oh, don't go outside without your coat on. It's because the immune systems in mice seem to react less strongly at low temperatures. So these replication rates that we're talking about here, they're all a little bit hand wavy and they depend on what temperature you're at.

29:21And so, Tim, I hope you're staying nice and warm. So what do we know about how much the cell replicates inside of a host? And the answer is, well, it's complicated. So a lot of our data come from what I think of as the wrong kinds of cells in the lab. And so the cells that are often used in these experiments are HeLa cells. So these are, I think, ovarian cells collected from a woman named Henrietta Lacks a long time ago. They were collected without her permission. Bad, bad biologist, bad. Yeah. Yeah. No, bad biologist. You're right. I'll take that one. I mean, we've never gotten consent from any of the protons we've destroyed, but I don't think they have the same rights.

29:59Yeah. No, it's you're right. This was this was not a bright spot in the history of biology. So we stole those cells. There's a whole very interesting book on that, which I recommend people check out. But anyway, so these cells are really great at surviving in the lab. And so we will infect them with cold viruses and see how they replicate. But the problem is they're ovarian cells. They're not like nasal passage cells. And the body is complicated. So just because something happens in a Petri dish doesn't mean it would happen the same in a body. So when a cell explodes, how many baby viruses are made?

30:29And the answer is probably something like 100 ,000, maybe even more than that. And then how long is the cycle of infection before you get an explosion? And, you know, we don't really know. It's probably longer than minutes, but less than weeks, which is a pretty big time frame. And thank you so much to Katrina Whiteson for giving us this information because I was having trouble sort of narrowing down the numbers to use for this question. And I think Katrina would probably want me to emphasize that these are very fuzzy numbers because it's a research question. Nobody knows the answer to these things, which is sort of shocking and amazing, but it's hard to measure.

31:05And she was also telling me that sometimes a virus wants to slow down how long the process takes because it wants the cell to get stronger and fatter before it explodes. So sometimes they beef up the cell, sort of like fattening a calf before you kill it. That's right. And so as a group effort, I would say the Whiteson Research Institute plus adjunct faculty member Kelly Wienersmith decided that the virus that you sneeze out sort of towards the end of your cold, probably has something like 20 mutations and is about 1 % different than the virus that you were infected by. Go team. But Tim wanted to know if it was noticeably variable.

31:41And we've mentioned that it really depends where those mutations are happening. But over time, this is adding up. The cold virus does end up being noticeably variable enough that it's really hard to make a vaccine for the cold. And this is for a couple reasons. So one, we've already mentioned that there's like something like 200 different kinds of viruses that can cause colds. Additionally, each strain of the cold virus is replicating pretty rapidly. So from one season to another, it might be different enough that the vaccine wouldn't work. And additionally, colds don't tend to be as serious as something like the flu.

32:13So there's not a lot of impetus to try to create a vaccine, even though I sure would love to have not spent. Oh, my gosh. When my kids started elementary school, I think I spent like 60 percent of my time at home with a cold. I would have loved to have had that time back. But what are you going to do? And that's interesting because colds are varying constantly and it's hard to maintain immunity against them. Yet they mostly feel the same, right? Like, yeah, you got a head cold or a chest cold or whatever, but it's not like, oh, wow, this one makes my head green or now my thumb is swollen or something.

32:45It's basically the same disease it feels like to me. Yeah, no, it feels that way to me as well. And just to be clear, the flu viruses are also doing quite a bit of mutating, but I think they mutate a little bit less. But every year, the reason you get a new flu vaccine is because that vaccine is meant to replicate the strains of the flu that we think are going to be most common in a given year, given like mutations that we've seen in those flu virus strains in the past. Yeah, I think there's a lot of detective work and guesswork that goes into the flu, right? They're like thinking about what it might be because they obviously don't have the examples for the flu that's going to come in the future.

33:18Yep, exactly. I mean, they're making their guess based on years of data, looking at trends and how this stuff plays out. But you're right. At the end of the day, you just need to guess which flu strains are going to be the most important ones to make vaccines against. And I hope you got it right. Thanks to folks working on the front lines of public health. Yes. Oh, my gosh. They're the best. All right, Tim, we hope you're feeling better. And let's find out if we were able to answer your question. Yes, that answered my question. And wow, that is rather terrifying that 200 variants out there make up the cold virus.

33:49I don't know if I'm going to sleep well at night knowing that fact on top of all the other mutation rates. But luckily, we feel a little bit on the safe side.

34:06That call was really pivotal for me. Hey, it's Emily Tisch-Sussman. And this season on She Pivots, the podcast where women share bold career moves and personal turning points that changed everything. I sit down with culture-shifting women who share their pivots, like Paralympian Allie Truitt. I was like, I'm a month out from a shark attack. There's no way in 11 months I'm making the Paralympics. Advocate Elizabeth Smart. I still feel that drive that I can still make a difference, so I'm going to keep going. Celebrity chef Carla Hall. Was that scary to walk away from such a stable career after just two years?

34:39No. I was more afraid of being unhappy than I was broke in a dead-end job that I didn't enjoy. And feminist legend Gloria Steinem. All of us were trying to express women's real lives. We need a meeting place of our own. And if I can contribute to that, I'd like to maintain that and leave this house for that purpose. Listen to She Pivots on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. I'm Jake Brennan, and on my podcast, Hollywoodland, I revisit some of the biggest stories from Hollywood history. separating the myths people want to believe from the reality underneath them.

35:19Like how the story of Marilyn Monroe isn't just the story of a Hollywood icon. Marilyn Monroe has become so iconic that her death can only be explained through conspiracy theories. And for some fans who can't let go, these stories have metastasized from conjecture to accepted fact. So on August 4th, 1962, Marilyn Monroe died. Then the rumors started and she died again. And now we're going to set the record straight and learn about the way Marilyn Monroe actually died the third way. Learn more about what happens when fame, media obsession and conspiracy collide. Listen to Hollywoodland on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts or wherever you get your podcasts.

36:07Self-care September is here, which means it's time to rethink what self-care actually means. Yes, self-care can be a long walk. It can be an everything shower. It can be putting your phone on do not disturb. But sometimes it's actually about sitting with the uncomfortable stuff and understanding your patterns, your boundaries, finally figuring out why you keep doing things that you swore you would never do again. I'm Gemma Spegg, the host of the Psychology of Your 20s podcast. And each week we unpack the psychology behind the experiences that shape your 20s, from relationships and friendships to money, anxiety, confidence, attachment, just becoming more comfortable with who you are.

36:43Unlike the quarter life crisis, which is depicted as the collapse, the quarter life reinvention is the expansion and growth of something. When we develop the ability to be happy by ourselves, nobody else can take that from you. So this self-care September, don't just take care of yourself, get to know yourself as well. Listen to The Psychology of your 20s on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts.

37:32officers was at the stadium. Like, hey, buddy, yeah, you, Adam, come on. And one of my favorite segments we do is called situational awareness, where Bobby and I give each other real life situations and figure out what we'd actually do. You're in training camp and the rookie quarterback has one good throwing session in front of the media. Suddenly everybody online says he should start over you week one. How do you handle this? You just go back out to practice the next day and wait for him to mess up. Listen to Lots to Say with Bobby Bones and Matt Castle on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts.

38:18All right, and our last question comes from Mark in Newcastle, who asks a very heavy question about something very ephemeral. Hi guys, it's Mark here from Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the UK, and I've got a question for you about data. I was recently working on a project with my Arduino, writing to some SD cards, and of course when you switch off the power and switch it back on, the data is retained, so these cards do store something. They're storing charge, and charge is electrons. Electrons have mass, so does data have mass? Would an SD card full of data weigh more than an SD card that didn't? I guess there's an extrapolation to this question.

39:00How much does the internet weigh, but perhaps for another day? This is such a great question because, well, for a variety of reasons, but I love this question because in the past on this show, you have said that when a Tesla battery is charged, it weighs more than when it's not charged. And that makes sense now, but at the moment it totally surprised me and I didn't expect that. And so, yeah, how much does the internet weigh, Daniel? Seven. It weighs seven. Oh, good. I was going to guess 42. Yeah, remember that mass is a measure of internal stored energy. So if you increase the internal stored energy of an object, then you are increasing its mass.

39:38Like if you have a rock and you zap it with a photon and it gets hotter, it also has more mass now. So when you charge your Tesla battery, you're giving it more energy, not because you're adding more electrons, You know, like physically adding more scoops of universe stuff, just giving more energy to that configuration does increase the mass of the battery. Since E equals MC squared and C squared is a really big number, you need an enormous amount of energy to make a tiny increase in mass. So nobody really notices this, and that's why. But Mark's question is sort of related. He's asking about whether the arrangements, the configuration of information on his SD card or on your hard drive or in your brain also has mass, which is a really fascinating question.

40:21It touches on deep concepts about information and entropy. And we luckily have someone who is part computer scientist, part physicist, who is absolutely prepared to answer this question for us. Yeah. So information is really fascinating. it's hard to think about like whether information has mass because information seems sort of subjective, right? Like if you have a hard drive and it has just random ones and zeros on it, does it have more or less information than if you put a picture of your dog on the hard drive? Well, it depends. Like, do you consider the picture of your dog to be useful or information in some way, right?

40:58Or like, did you encrypt the picture of your dog? Because the best encryption algorithms make data that's valuable, that has information, look like random noise. So you can imagine a scenario where you take a picture of your dog, you put it on the hard drive, looks like your dog, then you encrypt it. Somebody else coming along was like, no, that's just random noise. There's no information. And what if you lose the password? Has the information decreased? And so information turns out to be a fascinatingly subjective concept, which makes it very hard to link to mass because mass is something physical and invariant that everybody agrees on that you can like measure without knowing about dogs or passwords.

41:35Should I be thinking about information differently than I think about like, you know, before I put my PowerPoint presentation on my SD card, it has 50 megabytes of data. And after the PowerPoint presentation is on there, it has a thousand fifty. So how is information different than megabytes? Yeah, if you have an empty disk and then you put files on there, it's counting like how much of the drive has information you've put on there. There could also be information on the other bits that it's not counting. Maybe somebody else put it on there, but then you formatted the drive so you consider it to be empty.

42:09So that's a different question of when you're filling up the drive, right? Because it's just like using some of the bits for this rather than considering them unused. But the question of information is subtle, and we're going to have to dip into our understanding of entropy in order to understand it, because it turns out these two concepts are closely related. So, okay, so just to clarify then, information is not how much stuff is on a card. It's how informative is the thing? Yeah, because you could take a card and just fill it with random ones and zeros, right? There's no information there for you.

42:42So just because you put a big file in your hard drive doesn't mean you added a lot of information. It's about the contents. And this seems really subjective. And physics is all about equations and crisp definitions. So how do we think about information from the point of view of science and physics? So Claude Shannon defined this in the middle of the last century. He was thinking about this. And he came up with something of an arbitrary but very useful definition of information. And he defines it as how much you have learned, how much surprising information you have gained. So he was imagining like, I'm communicating to you by sending you symbols across some channel.

43:15Ones and zeros on a hard drive or text on a phone or whatever. And you want to measure how much information is in these messages from Daniel. And according to his definition, if when you learn something surprising, that's high information. If you learn something you already know, that's low information. So for example, let's say every day I text you and I say, hey, Kelly, the earth didn't explode last night. Every day you look at it and you're like, okay, that's not a surprise, right? This has happened every day so far in my life. I'm changing my phone number. Leave me alone, Daniel. Why a physicist text me about a planet's exploding.

43:50That's right. What did I do wrong? Low information. Low information, exactly. Because it's something you expected to happen. So the fact that it happened, you didn't really learn much. If one day I texted you, I was like, by the way, at 2 a.m., the Earth exploded. You'd be like, wow, that's news to me, right? This is big information. But wouldn't that also be low information? Because I would have been exploded and I would have also been like, thanks for being late to the party, Daniel. Don't use the practical details of my analogy to confuse the audience. Okay. Whoa. Oh, no. I didn't know that, Daniel.

44:20You're living in a city on Mars in this example. All right. So let's put Kelly on Mars. She and her cute babies in their baby spacesuits. And her and the Girl Scout troop are camping up there on Mars. Awesome. And every day I wake up. And my job is to text you about whether the Earth exploded. So the day that you get a text that the Earth exploded, that's big news. Why? Because it was unlikely. And so the fact that it happened is a lot of information. Major bummer. So this is fascinating because it means a bits of information, like did the earth explode? Yes or no? It feels like one bit, like either value should be equal amounts of information, but they're not because information depends on context.

44:58So bits of information are not created equally. And so Shannon said, let's define the amount of information to be the inverse of the probability for that to happen, right? So if a high probability event happens, one over that number is a small number. So it's a small amount of information. And if a very unlikely thing happened, then one over that number is a very big number. So that's a lot of information. And he called this surprisal. That's cute. And then to make it well behaved, we have the logarithm of it. So he defines information as log of one over the probability for something to happen, which just means that like more probable, lower information, less probable, more information.

45:37So now we have like a definition of information. And again, this is just something Claude Shannon made up. But we're going to see in a moment that actually connects with other concepts in physics. Would you be like taking the expected value of surprisal after accounting for the fact that people might differ in how surprised they are about some? Like, would you have to average different people's surprisal to really get a good sense of the information? That's really cool. Yeah. So something might be information to me, but not to you, right? Like, what if I'm the one who destroyed the earth? And then somebody texts me like, the earth blew up today.

46:11I'm like, yeah, dude, I know. Then that's not information to me because I already knew what happened, but it is information to you. And that kind of makes sense, right? Like the same bit is not the same amount of information for everybody, depending on what they already knew. Got it. But there is a concept of expected surprisal. So if you take the kind of surprise you might get from all the different messages you might get from Daniel, and you average them over how likely you are to get those messages, you get this other formula. And this formula is fascinating because it looks just like the formula we have in physics for calculating entropy.

46:44Remember a few episodes ago, we talked about what does entropy mean? And we said that entropy was a ratio between basically how much you know and how much you don't know. How many ways can you configure the microstates of a system to be consistent with the macrostate you see? So you see that there's particles in a box at a certain temperature. How many ways can you arrange the particles inside? how many different configurations can there be that are consistent with the measurement that you made. And the relationship between the microstates and the macrostates is also related by a formula with exactly the same structure as Shannon's formula for average surprisal.

47:19So Shannon showed this formula to John von Neumann, famous physicist and mathematician, and he said, oh, you should call this information entropy for two reasons. One, because the formula looks the same. It looks like the formula for entropy and it's conceptually sort of similar. And two, because nobody really knows what entropy means, and so they can't argue with you. I like that. Anything that makes it impossible for people to argue with me, I'm down for. Exactly. And so in Shannon's information entropy, low information means low entropy. So if you're getting a bunch of signals from Earth, and you're always getting the same high probability message, like the Earth didn't explode today, the Earth didn't explode today, that's low information entropy.

48:03You're always getting the same one. But if you're always getting a different message, like maybe instead of getting texts from Daniel about whether the Earth exploded, you're getting pictures from probes that landed on exoplanets. And every time you open one of those, you're like, I have no idea what to expect. Anything I see is going to be new to me, right? And like this one has rocks and that one has like lava and that one has aliens on it. And like, what is this over here? Oh my gosh. The way like every time we turn on a new telescope, we see something weird and surprising in the universe, right?

48:31That's very high information content because there's lots of different possible outcomes, each of which are equally likely instead of there being like one very likely outcome. So that's high information entropy. Okay, so now let's try to connect to mass. So I'm wondering if an internet made of cat memes, which would be low information, would weigh less than an internet that reconciles relativity with quantum mechanics, which would be a high information internet. How do you compare those? Yeah, so now we have a definition of information, right? We know how to measure information. Is something low information or high information?

49:09And you're right. If you get on the internet and you see the same cat memes you're always seeing, then that's low information. If somebody says something really new and clever and surprising, you're like, whoa, oh my gosh, that's high information. That's more entropy. And we're talking about in terms of entropy because we're trying to get a grapple on the physical nature of this. and the consequences for it, like, does it have mass? Because we know entropy is connected to energy, right? And energy is connected to mass. So can we somehow draw a dotted line between information, cat memes, and the weight of the internet?

49:40No, unfortunately not. Because increasing the information doesn't increase the mass or the energy of the system. The information content is relative to what you already know. It depends on the context. You can arrange a set of sticks or bits on a hard drive to mean one thing or another, it doesn't change the mass or the energy. So it has to do with how you interpret the arrangement of the system and what you already know. It does require some mass and some energy to store that information. You want to put bits on a hard drive, you want to write numbers in the Sahara and fill them with kerosene, that definitely costs energy, right?

50:14And all stored energy does have some mass, but increasing the information on something doesn't increase its mass. So connecting back to Mark's question, he's asking, does data have mass and data does not have mass, right? And remember that when you're putting a picture of your dog onto the SD card, you're not like downloading electrons. They're not flowing onto there. You're just moving electrons up or down. You're just flipping switches on that card. So you're not adding matter to it in any way. You're not changing the energy of the card. You're just flipping a switch, which doesn't require any more or less energy.

50:45It requires energy to build the card and it requires energy to change things on the card. But the card is not heavier because you put a picture of a dog rather than a picture of the earth or a picture of an exoplanet or like the equations of quantum gravity, which would be very surprising to anybody to find, have a lot of information, but wouldn't have any more mass than any other arrangement of those electrons or bits or sticks or flaming letters in the Sahara. Or sloths. But there is one other fascinating connection between information and mass, which people may have heard about. It's called the Bekenstein Bound, which talks about the amount of information you can have in a space.

51:23because it turns out there is a limit to how much information you can put in a volume of space. And it turns out that's a black hole. The most information-dense arrangement of matter or energy is a black hole. So black holes have the maximum amount of information. It's called the Bekenstein bound. Bekenstein is a student who worked with Stephen Hawking, doesn't get enough credit for Hawking radiation and all their black hole work that he did with Hawking, but a super genius guy. Now, this doesn't mean, as you often hear in popular science, that if you have too much information, something will collapse into a black hole.

51:57Like if you download enough amazing pictures of dogs under your computer, it's going to turn into a black hole. That's not the problem. It means that if you need to store a huge amount of information, the only way to do it is a black hole. A black hole is like the most information-dense system you can have. So if you need to increase the amount of information you're storing, you might need to increase the mass of your system so much so that you get a black hole. Wow. Yeah. I know DNA is also supposed to be very information dense. And there are people who are arguing that when we can easily print DNA sequences, we might want to start storing data in DNA and sticking it in freezers.

52:33That sounds complicated to me, but we'll see what the future holds. Yeah, but DNA is an amazing storage system because it lasts for a long, long time compared to hard drives. You put something on a hard drive, you think, oh, it's there. But five years later, you come back, it could be totally degraded. So if you have like really valuable information, the secrets to quantum gravity on a hard drive in your closet, make sure you're upgrading those every couple of years because that stuff fades. You are making me very nervous about the videos from my PhD that are still sitting in the closet a decade on that need to be analyzed.

53:04We have a real problem with digital storage. People think it's forever because it's ones and zeros, but it's not. And actually a lot of the old analog systems we have last longer. Like my favorite story is computer punch cards. My dad did his graduate thesis on the computer using punch cards. I remember being in the computer room as he would like insert them and pick them up. And the cool thing about punch cards is they're totally resilient. They'll last a long, long time, right? And so he still has like stacks of punch cards that you could still run if the computer was around, but nobody has a hard drive from like 1984 that still works.

53:37So back up all your stuff, folks. and don't create black holes. And Mark, you can keep adding pictures of your dog to your SD card without making it heavier. So let's check in with Mark to see if that answered his question. Thanks for answering my question, guys. I think I'm fundamentally more enlightened now. I found it interesting how the view on data and mass extended into information value and information entropy and also information density. Perhaps Bekenstein can have a side hustle selling high-density branded SD cards. Anyway, thanks again, and keep up the good work. All right, everyone.

54:13Thanks for listening today. If you have a question you want to ask us, write to us at questions at danielandkelly.org. We answer every question we get. Some of them end up on the show, and we'd love to know what you're thinking about. We really do, because it's not just our curiosity that fuels this show. It's your curiosity, your desire, your deep need to understand the nature of this extraordinary universe. So write to us to questions at danielandkelly.org.

54:44Daniel and Kelly's Extraordinary Universe is produced by iHeartRadio. We would love to hear from you. We really would. We want to know what questions you have about this extraordinary universe. We want to know your thoughts on recent shows, suggestions for future shows. If you contact us, we will get back to you. We really mean it. We answer every message. Email us at questions at danielandkelly.org. Or you can find us on social media. We have accounts on X, Instagram, Blue Sky, and on all of those platforms, you can find us at D &K Universe. Don't be shy. Write to us. One last thing before you go.

55:23You know that feeling when feedback, notes, and data are coming in from every direction? ChatGPT work can make sense of it all. turning scattered inputs into ready-to-review work. With your permission, work in ChatGPT can gather context from apps and files, summarize incoming messages, rebuild decks, and help finalize high-quality documents for your team or clients. Stay in control as you move from a goal to polished work faster with ChatGPT work. Download the ChatGPT desktop app today and take on your most ambitious work. On August 4th, 1962, Marilyn Monroe died. Then the rumors started, and she died again.

56:01And now, we're going to set the record straight and learn about the way Marilyn Monroe actually died. The third way. I'm Jake Brennan, and on my podcast, Hollywoodland, I revisit some of the biggest stories from Hollywood history, separating the myths people want to believe from the reality underneath them. Hollywoodland is part of the Exactly Right Network. Listen to new episodes every Monday on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. Self-Care September is your reminder to slow down, check in with yourself, get off your phone, and maybe ask, why am I like this?

56:38I'm Gemma Speck, host of the Psychology of Your 20s podcast, and this month we're helping you make sense of the person that you are becoming, from setting boundaries and navigating friendships to understanding anxiety, confidence, relationships, and attachment. Sometimes our biggest decisions, without us even realizing it aren't driven by what we truly want, but by what will prevent us from feeling lonely or being alone. Listen to The Psychology of Your 20s on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. So like by age 11 or so, at least 70 % have a phone. I'm Dr. Joy, and this is Therapy for Black Girls.

57:19We spend our surviving middle school run getting into what's happening inside your kid's brain, the group chats, and their friendships, and what you can do about it. Your child is not doing this on purpose. That's the kind of perspective we've been pulling from the psychologists and psychiatrists who study this for a living. Listen to Therapy for Black Girls on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you get your podcasts. This is an iHeart Podcast. Guaranteed human.