What do trigger warnings actually do?

24:55I was familiar with the idea that trigger warnings had begun more as an internet phenomenon than an academic one. It had never occurred to me until hearing you tell the history this way. In my mind, I was like, there's a lot of discourse, obviously, that comes from the internet. A lot of it around like sort of progressive ideas or ideas about mental health. And so, in a way, the idea that trigger warnings came from the internet made sense. It hadn't occurred to me that another reason it makes sense that trigger warnings develop on the internet is because for people who are used to film and television where there's a regime of, you know, what is allowed to be broadcast and what is allowed to be broadcast with and without warning, trigger warnings are an attempt to bring some of the expectations we have developed from like Hollywood film and say like, hey, we're going to rate this content for you.

25:42Like you're going to be able to know what you're getting into before you get into it. Yeah, that's a really good way of looking at it, actually. Because obviously the internet is very user-driven. And so people are putting out all this rogue content. It doesn't have any overseeing body. So I guess you're going to have to make your own sort of laws out there in the Wild West, especially in the early days of the internet when all of this was completely new. And people were sharing these kind of things for the first time. And you're exposed to a lot more things. So, okay, so one way you can trace the beginning of trigger warnings is informed consent models in medicine.

26:15You can see it in sort of Hays Code, Hollywood, and like the rating system that follows it. In the current incarnation, it starts on feminist message boards and fan fiction websites. And then where does it go from there? From there, we sort of saw the birth of social media in like 2005, 2006, 2007. I think it was like Twitter, Tumblr, the communities on the end, and the hashtags. use of hashtags as warnings. But yeah, I think social media just obviously skyrocketed and took it everywhere. After trigger warnings overtake social media, a young generation raised on LiveJournal and Tumblr and Twitter arrives on campus and starts insisting that professors put warnings in front of material on the syllabus.

26:59I think there was sort of like three events that occurred around 2010 to 2015. between that period, there were three key things that happened. So 2013, Oberlin University issued a document to all staff that said that they need to understand what triggers are, avoid necessary triggers, and provide warnings. And then that got a lot of flack in the media. Oberlin College, famously liberal, turns out to be not liberal at all. It's pretty authoritarian when it comes right down to it. What's a trigger warning? Oh boy, trigger warnings have been a major theme of this year. Trigger warnings are this idea that if you...

27:36I went back to look at this 2013 Oberlin College handbook that had so upset Tucker Carlson. The handbook talks specifically about a classic novel by Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart, which it calls, quote, a triumph of literature that everyone in the world should read. However, it may trigger readers who have experienced racism, colonialism, religious persecution, violence, suicide, and more. End quote. The handbook doesn't cite any research or literature saying trigger warnings work, but it does say that, quote, issuing a trigger warning will also show students that you care about their safety.

28:11These ideas started gaining traction on other campuses. Then it was 2015, a group of undergraduate students from Columbia University wrote an op-ed calling for the use of warnings in the uni, and that also had a lot of backlash. That was another big media splash of, like, students are demanding warnings and all this kind of stuff. What happens to the little darlings when they graduate from college and life doesn't come with trigger warnings? Well, I think we're going to find out. A lot of other universities followed suit, so a lot of student boards from various other places were like, yeah, we want them as well.

28:44So it was kind of student-driven in that way. And then the really spicy one was in 2016, the University of Chicago, the dean published this famous welcome letter, which has the line, we do not support so-called trigger warnings in it. If you're an incoming freshman at the University of Chicago and you're looking for trigger warnings and safe spaces, well, the dean of students would like to say, you can go fuck yourself. I don't think you said that exactly. He didn't really say that. But he kind of implied it. And there was a really famous article, The Coddling of the American Mind, published in The Atlantic in 2015.

29:20And that was really the crystallization, I think, point of this culture war, which centralized, say, microaggressions, safe spaces and trigger warnings all in the same space. And it really took off. This brings us back to where we'd started this chapter. By 2015, trigger warnings had just become a fully polarized issue. From the right to the center, trigger warnings, ironically, were themselves offensive, a sign of a country treating its college students like weird babies. Or if you were on the left and online, you probably either believed in trigger warnings or shrugged and went along with them.

29:56Another new kind of etiquette to observe, a small firmware update for online behavior. One reporter I know pretty well, who is me, recorded a lot of trigger warnings between 2015 and 2019, certainly on episodes that discussed suicide. I don't honestly know if I believed these warnings worked or not. I knew some listeners really liked them, and some were upset if they didn't hear them. And it just felt like a weird thing for me to fight about. I felt impolite. What I did not do was ask, is there any good research on these things? But in Australia, A young academic was doing just that. Dr. Victoria Bridgeland, in 2016, decides to start actually studying the effects of trigger warnings to learn what they're doing.

30:40Eventually, she will conduct experiments. And you can hear about the results of those experiments after the break.

31:00Thank you.

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32:56Welcome back to the show. So in 2016, Dr. Victoria Bridgeland decides she wants to study trigger warnings in a lab. At the time, almost everyone seemed to agree that trigger warnings were doing something. Advocates thought they were straightforwardly protecting people from harmful material. Critics thought they were coddling the mind, essentially, turning us all into mental weaklings. Victoria and her team were not willing to take any of that for granted. Before deciding what trigger warnings were doing, she wanted to know first, were they actually doing anything at all? So here was her first experiment.

33:31Two groups of people would be shown a series of photos, the same photos to each group. But one group would be given a caption that made the photos boring, the other a caption that made them disturbing. So picture a photo of passengers boarding a plane. Group one's caption, Boeing starts shipping their new Dreamliners to airlines. In 2019, that's not a disturbing headline. Group two's caption, I've lost everything. Mother takes photo of sons boarding plane shortly before fiery crash killing all. Showing these photos to these two groups was the design of the first experiment. Yeah, so there was two reasons why we wanted to do that.

34:07A, because of good experimental control. So if people are seeing the same photos, but we're just changing the valence or like what they're feeling with the news headlines. So if we give people ambiguous photos where nothing is actually going on, are they going to read something negative into it that's not there? So that was one of the questions we wanted to answer. And then another big reason we did that as well was because of ethical guidelines. So we wanted to have a study with a really clean, no warning condition. But in order to do that and get it through our ethical review board, we had to try and do it in a way that we could show something negative that wasn't too negative.

34:41Because it was too negative, we had to warn them in a consent form. Yes. So one of the obstacles to studying this is that if you just wanted to show somebody a truly horrifying photo, you actually would have to warn them. Yes, you can't do that. So it's really hard to study trigger warnings in that way.

35:05So what did you find? I mean, first of all, were you able to sufficiently disturb people with relatively anodyne photos when the context suggested that the photo is in fact disturbing? Yeah, so we had like a rating scale and people that were in the neutral conditions would rate things like low and people in the bad condition rated things at like seven or eight. So they were feeling more negative than the people that weren't in the negative condition. But we didn't find any differences for whether they were warned or not. So that was all we found that was that when people saw our trigger warning, they felt anxious.

35:40So they had an increase in state anxiety right before they saw the photos. All the warning did was make people feel anxious at the beginning, and then when they went to actually view the negative material, they felt the same as people that hadn't been warned. So I do want to interrupt and point out the experience that Felicia, our listener, had, that the trigger warnings made her anxious instead of making her feel better. These experimental subjects were demonstrating the same response. It's just the first experiment, but to me, that's interesting. Okay, so what this test would suggest is that if one of the things a trigger warning might do is it might cause somebody to choose to engage with content but do it sort of like girded or with preparation, this study would at least suggest that the warning doesn't make a difference.

36:29Like you have the same experience whether you're warned or not. Yeah, so it didn't mentally prepare them. Like we can't see any evidence that they were better prepared to reduce how negative they felt about that stimuli. They felt the same as people that hadn't been warned. they felt as negative as people that hadn't been warned. And that effect of like not finding a difference across groups has been widely replicated across multiple different types of really negative stimuli now, like people seeing actual traumatic films, negative text passages, negative lecture materials, other kinds of negative stimuli besides my ambiguous stuff.

37:00So the first conclusion Dr. Victoria Bridgeland was able to draw from this early batch of studies was that trigger warnings did not seem to help influence the experiences of the people who encountered them. Or as she put it, They do nothing. They don't make people feel worse, and they don't make people feel better. So maybe they're a gesundheit, a social gesture that we do to show that we care, even if we suspect or know that it's not really doing much. But that still left a question in my mind, which was, this all might be well and good in a laboratory setting where randomly selected people were presented with random material that may or may not disturb them.

37:36But that wasn't really testing what we were curious about. The whole point of a trigger warning was supposed to be that it allowed specific people to avoid their specific triggers. How would you even test that, ethically anyway, in a laboratory? I could imagine somebody who is a more firm believer in the efficacy of these warnings, they would say, like, well, you know, the test conditions don't match the real world because if the traumatic event I had was a car accident, I'm going to be specifically and highly attuned to photos of destroyed cars. And so unless you're taking a person who has like a specific kind of PTSD and exposing them to a trigger that's related to that PTSD, then, you know, you're testing something more general and that they'd be talking about something more specific.

38:25Does that make sense? Yeah, so there actually has been a couple of studies that have matched trauma survivors' traumas with the stimuli in the study, and they still don't find a benefit. So for people who specifically, and I have to say this is a crazy study to imagine, but for somebody who's like, I was in a horrible car accident, cars are making me flinch this year, I will sign up for this study. It's going to be traumatic for me because I just want to know. Even among those people, if they see a trigger warning, it doesn't help them. The content is still just as disturbing. as if they didn't see the trigger warning.

38:59Yeah, it doesn't seem to make a difference for those people either. Okay, so trigger warnings don't seem to work in the sense of being told the bad thing is coming does not actually help you gird yourself for it. But there's another way trigger warnings could still be helpful. That concept of informed consent. We actually do like having some kind of rating system for things. Parents like knowing the ratings of the movies their kids want to see. I don't like eating Thai food if there are five chili peppers next to it on the menu. rating systems can give us the option of avoiding experiences we don't want to have.

39:32So I wanted to know, what were trigger warnings doing for people who were choosing not to look? Was it helping them?

39:42How do you measure, like, isn't a trigger warning effective for those people who see the warning sign and then don't engage? We don't find a lot of that in any of the studies that have looked at avoidance. We don't seem to be able to find those people that are like, I've had a really bad experience with this, and now I'm deliberately avoiding this type of thing. If you're a person listening to this, a person with PTSD, who does avoid troubling material when they're given a heads up about it, who at this point might be wondering, wait, how statistically rare am I? According to a 2021 study, out of 100 people, six will behave the way you do.

40:20I think something else to note is that trauma triggers are really weird. Like they're really idiosyncratic. They're really unique to each person. And they're not always what you think they'd be. So often a true trauma trigger that's going to trigger you to relive or like have a really bad traumatic intrusion is often stuff associated with the event that happens just before the event. So like a warning signal cue. But it's often nothing to do with the actual negative thing. It could be like the headlights flashed in your eyes. And so now when light flashes in your eyes, you have a trauma reaction.

40:55Or like it could be someone's had a sexual assault and the perpetrator was standing next to their bed before they assaulted them. And now when that if they wake up and someone's standing near them near their bed, they're going to have a full reaction to it. It could be smells as well. Like smells can be a really powerful trigger. Random objects. I've seen converse shoes listed as somebody's trigger. You just never know what it's going to be. So I think trigger warnings in that sense is hard to know whether or not it's even going to capture everybody's triggers to begin with. But in a few studies that we've looked at now in terms of avoidance, across the board, people just don't seem to avoid negative stuff all that much.

41:34So trigger warnings as actual warnings also do not work super well because people's triggers tend to be highly idiosyncratic. Weirdly, here again, another experience that Felicia, our listener with the analytical mind, had self-reported. Depictions of suicide didn't upset her. A description of a loving sibling relationship had. There's no content warning for that. Dr. Bridgeland says there's another reason trigger warnings don't work very well as actual warnings. And this one really surprised me, although maybe it shouldn't have. Perhaps the biggest problem with how trigger warnings actually work in the real world is that human beings are very curious.

42:11And if you tell them something on the internet might disturb them, it makes people more likely to click, not less. There's this really fun study called the Pandora's Box Study where they gave people like three options across these studies. So they all got the same three options. They could either press a button that would give them like a nice sound or a nice image or a nice experience, a button that would give them a negative sound, a negative image, or like a shock, or a button where they were like, I don't know what it's going to be. It could be nice or it could be bad. Like, which one do you think they chose?

42:46They slammed that unsure button way more than the other two buttons, which is like, why would you do that? But it's funny. It sounds impossible to imagine a crazy quirk of human nature. And then if I told you there's a thing we invented in real life like that called social media, that is the most popular use of people's time and attention ever. And we've done multiple studies on this now. And we find that when we show people like a blurred image, about 80 to 85 % of people will just instantly click to uncover it. So there's 15 % of people that don't. But importantly, across multiple studies, we found that those people aren't those vulnerable people that we're trying to protect.

43:27And in one of our studies, actually, it seemed to be that people with psychopathological characteristics, so like PTSD symptoms or depression, We found in one of our studies that actually people that were more likely to want to look at it actually had elevated psychological characteristics. So it seemed to be going in the opposite direction. Wow. Which is interesting. Victoria says that while we may want to believe that humans seek out things that make us feel good and avoid what hurts, that's often not the case. Humans engage in what academics have beautifully termed counter-hedonistic behaviors.

44:02Depressed people seek out sadness-inducing material. Anxious people ramp themselves up. We humans demonstrate a remarkable affinity for what is familiar to us, even familiar suffering. And in PTSD, which is maybe one of the most interesting types of behaviors, is for a long time people have thought of PTSD, one of the cornerstone hallmark features or symptoms, as avoidance. So when you think of a PTSD sufferer, think about them having all these triggers and being sensitive and trying to avoid things that might make them triggered. But actually, there's quite a few people with PTSD that engage in self-triggering, which is where they'll deliberately seek out content related to their traumatic event to sort of not let the memory fade and like make meaning out of their negative experiences and find similarities with other people that have had these experiences.

44:55But importantly, that behavior is actually associated with like higher symptoms. So it's not It doesn't seem to be helping them. But what you see essentially is that one of the underlying assumptions that one might have about human behavior, which is that people who are in pain avoid information or material that might make them suffer. Yeah. That doesn't seem to be necessarily borne out by research. Definitely not. So it sort of goes in counter to the ideas of how a trigger warning might work. Because the whole idea of a trigger warning is you should see it and then make a rational decision about either avoiding it or approaching it based on whether or not that would be good for you.

45:31But I don't think people are always doing those things. Right. Also within eating disorders as well, and this hasn't been as widely studied. It's something that I'm hoping to study soon. People with eating disorders often have a high ambivalence about disorder recovery. So they often feel that they want to get better, but they also don't want to get better. And so there's a lot of anecdotal reports saying that they actually use trigger warnings to find content. Like I've seen it in a lot of interviews. So they're actually using the warnings to find the worst content because that's going to be tagged with warnings on it.

46:05Oh, God. So it like puts it in a section in which people can find it. Exactly. Yeah. So part of the reason that I'd wanted to speak to you is that we had a question from a listener to our podcast who her brother died. He died by suicide. She was finding that when she then saw trigger warnings about suicidal content, it made her feel hurt and angry. Her reaction of feeling angry and hurt by the warning itself, is that statistically unusual or have you seen reactions like that in the studies that you've run? We haven't actually studied this before, but it's something that we've been thinking about because we have actually been seeing more and more of this online.

46:43So you see this a lot in the child loss space online in terms of miscarriages because a lot of people online find solace sharing their experiences and then other people will be like, I want a trigger warning on this for like child loss or miscarriage. And they're like, but I don't want to put that on my experience because it was really horrible, but it was also my experience. And I don't want you to say that my experience is too horrible for you to read or look at. Right. And this came through really strongly. I was on a panel discussion on an Australian TV show, Insight. Hi, I'm Kumi Taguchi.

47:14On this episode of Insight, trigger warnings, they're everywhere these days. They tell us what to avoid. And there was a guest on there who had lost a child and she was really angry every time she saw a trigger warning the same way that I guess that person was that you mentioned. Rachel, your baby daughter Mackenzie died when she was seven months old from a rare genetic condition. Do trigger warnings about topics like child loss help you? No, they actually harm me. My life for the last seven years has been what other people would find triggering or traumatic. She said like, I went through this horrible experience and I don't know why you think that you should not have to also sort of see some of the negative stuff that other people go through and it's not going to be as bad for you as it was for me.

48:08Like, I don't want you to turn away. I want you to look and look at what happened to me and look at my pain and learn from it and learn about these types of things. So I've done a lot of media, podcasts, interviews, and And people put trigger warnings on my story, and that really hurts me. My daughter doesn't deserve to be covered in trigger warnings. This woman, Rachel, is making a very human request here. Please don't make me feel like my suffering is taboo. Stories like hers about resilience and healing, I think most of us know those stories can be helpful. Can be maps drawn by humans who survived something.

48:51But it's complicated. We all know there's a difference between hearing a story like Rachel's versus, say, repetitively watching gruesome images or video. And what about when the stakes are at their highest? What about the warnings we started our story with? Suicide trigger warnings. There, we know we're supposed to be careful because the assumption is that stories about suicide are uniquely dangerous to tell. because suicide, like all human behavior, can be socially contagious. It turns out, though, when you look at that notion more closely, it's actually kind of complicated.

49:30A 1974 study suggested the existence of something called the Werther effect. The Werther effect demonstrates that stories about suicide can inspire suicides in the real world. It's named after a protagonist in this novel where the hero loses his love and then takes his own life. But, and this part I didn't know, a 2010 study discovered a different countervailing effect, the Papageno effect. This is named for a different suicidal fictional protagonist from an opera. He, too, loses his love. He, too, contemplates suicide. But he doesn't do it. The Papageno effect describes how, in some instances, stories about suicide can reduce the likelihood of suicide among the people who experience them.

50:15It just depends on how the actual story is told, how it's framed. It's why the CDC offers members of the media guidelines for how we tell these stories. Common sense suggestions anybody online could follow, like avoid glamorizing suicide. Don't talk about methods. The guidelines contain no suggestion that the media precede stories about suicide with any kind of content warning. I can tell you the story of one piece of media that did come with a content warning. In 2017, Netflix released a TV show called 13 Reasons Why. Aimed at teenagers, it broke almost all of the rules we have about how to responsibly tell stories about suicide.

50:56It depicted the death of its hero in graphic detail. The rest of the story was about how her death got her the revenge on her enemies she so justly wanted. Suicide depicted as heroic, even possibly necessary. Researchers found a measurable uptick in suicides among male teenagers when it came out, although they were careful to say this was correlation. They couldn't prove causation. I'll tell you one last story about suicide, a personal one that I hope isn't reckless to share. There was a chapter in my life in which I'd left a psychiatric hospital, and for a while, about six months, I remained profoundly suicidal.

51:35I did not want to talk about it with my friends, because I was worried I would say the wrong thing and be sent back to the hospital. I was lucky, though. I had a really great psychiatrist. During that time, we were working together very closely, and he used to do this thing that I found as effective as it was unusual. I had this pattern where I'd see something, often on the Internet, that would set me off. I would very much want to die. I'd call him. I'd tell him how much I was struggling. He'd listen. He'd usually pause. and then he would ask this question. He'd say, the reason you want to do this, is it about something that's actually happened or something you think is going to happen?

52:17Usually it was more the latter. He'd ask, well then could you just wait? Just wait until the bad thing has actually happened? And weirdly, I would agree to this. And then the bad thing, either it wouldn't happen or it would happen, but it just would not be as bad as I'd pictured. There's a joke in here, which is that procrastination saved my life. But the other week, I actually asked my psychiatrist, why did you do that? And why did it work on me? And he paused for a moment, and he dug in his phone for a quote. The quote went, anything that's human is mentionable, and anything that's mentionable can be more manageable.

52:58When we can talk about our feelings, they can become less overwhelming, less upsetting, and less scary. The people we trust with that important talk can help us know that we are not alone. The quote was from Fred Rogers. My psychiatrist said, you needed to talk about it. Being able to talk about things is usually what makes people okay. The thing that I think the trigger warning people got right is that the internet can certainly hurt us in very real ways. And I would like to think that trigger warnings aside, there might be a way to make the internet better. Dr. Bridgeland has a forthcoming study looking at alternatives to trigger warnings, strategies that might actually be useful to people who have seen upsetting material.

53:40When she described these strategies, they sounded to me a lot like the kind of processing you do in therapy, or even just with a good friend. Yeah, so in the study that we ran, I think we had two different kinds of strategies. We had like distraction techniques and more of a reappraisal technique. And I think probably aftercare could be a thing there as well, which we haven't looked at. So by that, I mean, like, as you said, if it does start to ruin your day, what can you do? What can you do to help yourself? I mean, as you talk about it, it's interesting. It makes me think that in some ways, yeah, there's absolutely a conversation to have about trauma and traumatic response and resilience and how we heal from things.

54:17But it's also like when you talk about, oh, this Pandora's box experiment and people being attracted in ways that aren't always healthy for them to mentally unhelpful content. Like that is what social media is. And in some ways, the idea of like, we've made a website that will sometimes please you and sometimes really hurt your feelings in ways that will addict you and keep you coming on. Like the trigger warning would go on your decision to go on these websites at all. The warning is almost a way of absolving the platform or the website or the internet itself of responsibility for the thing that we all go to it to do.

54:56Like we go to it to sometimes disturb us and to be addicted in a disturbing way. And the trigger warning like just pretends that that's not the case when the research and like my own experience like points to the idea that it probably is. Yeah. Yeah, I guess like we do have individual responsibility for what we consume as well, which is another thing is like when you're using a trigger warning or expecting people to use them, you're sort of asking somebody else to take responsibility over things that you're selecting. Yeah. But on the other hand, social media is so pervasive, you can't really go without it.

55:29And if you're a young person, like a young teenager or something, that's when it can get really bad because I think if you're a big multi-global platform with billions of users and a lot of money raking in, you do have some kind of responsibility to ensure the users who might be these young vulnerable users are safe. Case in point, the reason why we started looking at these sensitivity screens was because we saw all these press releases after a 14-year-old girl took her own life. Her name's Molly Russell. And there was a coronial inquest and they actually concluded that her consumption of negative content on Instagram was one of the direct causes of her death.

56:08And after that, Instagram beefed up all of this warning stuff. They beefed up all of the sensitivity screens. They started removing a lot of like self-harm content, but it's not hard to find any of this kind of content. So they're trying to, I guess, you know, put warnings on things and take things down, but it's really not doing all that it could be. But it's interesting when you tell that story, like this young woman, Molly Russell. Yeah. It's like the other part of this argument that you see people having about trigger warnings is there's one side that says we should take seriously the emotional harm people feel when they see things that hurt them.

56:48And there's sometimes another side that says, no, that's not real pain. Let's not all be babies. And you're saying the pain actually is real and particularly for young people can have real consequences. It's just the thing we're calling a seatbelt isn't a seatbelt. Exactly. Yeah.

57:16Dr. Victoria Bridgeland, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Flinders and the author of a long and growing list of trigger warning studies. The CDC has requested that I tell you that if you or someone you know is struggling with thoughts of suicide, you should call a suicide hotline. In the U.S., the number is 988. If you don't love the hotlines, I get it. Just find someone to talk to. Anyone. Anything that's human is mentionable. Anything that's mentionable is manageable. And there's a lot of us out here managing. As far as I can tell, we're pretty glad we stuck around.

58:03Thank you.

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58:58Search Engine is a presentation of Odyssey and Jigsaw Productions. If you got something out of this episode, please rate and review us over at Apple Podcasts. Funny thing to say, but it really does help. We also have a paid premium version of our show. You can find it at searchengine.show. We offer all kinds of bonuses, plus you can support the work we do. Thanks to Daniel, who just subscribed to Incognito Mode. Daniel, in his email, said he travels and works alone and wanted podcast recommendations. Here's three that we like. David Marchese and Lulu Garcia Navarro have a new show called The Interview.

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