How Codes Were Used To Hack The Telegram Business

28:20You're inhabiting the space where you are having those emotions, where you are kind of feeling those feelings, where you're having those experiences, not the one where you're sitting in the room holding a kind of cold black square, you know? Yeah. Because you're not really fully consciously there anyway. I think that that's where the answer lies, that the virtual world is certainly full of surprises and fears and emotions, the visceral stuff that our dreams seem to be so made out of. But the phone itself is just the window we're looking through to then feel those things. And we dream about those things, but how they came to us, whether it was through the glass of my phone or the glass of my spectacles, my eyeglasses, it doesn't matter.

29:03That's incidental to what the dream is doing, which is saying you missed a class. and personally, like I dream that one a lot that I forgot to attend a class for like months and now I've got a final exam, yeah. That's interesting. And the thing is I never ever in the dream experience or at least remember how I came to know I'd missed the class. Like I read it on an email or on my phone or on a sheet of paper or a letter. It's always just like I already know and I'm dealing with that emotion. That's the dream. Right. And what is the emotion? Do you feel sort of, is it like anxiety? Is it sort of?

29:41Yeah, it's a panic. And I haven't had that dream for a while, which means maybe my life is going better than it was back when I constantly dreamt that I'd forgotten something that I, it would either be the dream about missing a class in college, or it would be a dream where I have been cast in a play and I forgot to ever go to rehearsals. I never went to rehearsal and now it's opening night and I don't know my lines. Oh my gosh. Yeah. I can see the similarities between those two. Mine, by the way, is that I'm leaving somewhere, like I'm leaving a house or, you know, packing up and leaving. And it doesn't matter how many times I go back, there's always more to do.

30:23It's always like, oh my God, how is there still this much stuff to move? There's always like, it's like a refilling well, should we say, of stuff to do. And then, and what's the, what's the kind of core emotion? I think it's, it's like fatigue almost. It's sort of overwhelming fatigue as in like, I can't, I just can't, I just can't do it again. It's like that. Yeah. And then how do you feel when you wake up from that dream? Honestly, I have it so often, Michael, it sort of feels quite normal. You know what? There's going to be so many people analyzing these in the comments, isn't there? Like this means that you are.

31:02Fine by me. Analyze away, guys. This isn't so much an analysis as it is just I'm glad I don't have that dream because I feel like waking up from that dream, you still do have a lot to do in your life. Whereas in my dream, I wake up and I go, oh, I didn't miss a class. I'm not in a play. I feel relief and I feel so happy to be alive in the real world. But if I was dreaming about all the stuff I have to do and that it never ends. When I woke up, it would still, I'd still be in that dream. So I'm sorry, Hannah. Thank you. I appreciate it. We should definitely do some episodes properly on dreams as well.

31:38You know, I think there's so many interesting things to say about dreams and what they mean for consciousness and all of that different kind of thing. Okay. We'll do a next question, shall we? Yeah. This is another one from Reddit. This came in from just some jerk online. Oh no, that's their username. That's actually their username. But they have asked, why does water swirl down drains? Why doesn't it just kind of fall through like sand in an hourglass? What a lovely question. Basically, I'll tell you what it's not. It's not the Coriolis effect. I think that there's all of these videos online about, actually some of them are quite good, but some of them aren't.

32:18Some of them are quite good about how when it swirls down the drain in the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere will go in different directions. It's, it's, I mean, theoretically you might get some effect, but it's so weak that even the tiniest little bump on the inside of your sink will dictate the direction. The reason why it happens is basically conservation of angular momentum. So if you have a, I mean, the classic example is if you have an ice skater who starts with their, starts spinning with their arms really far out. And then they bring their arms in as they're spinning, they start spinning really, really, really fast, right?

32:56Because you have angular momentum is like your mass times your tangential velocity times your radius. So if you tighten up the radius, the total product needs to be the same, keep the mass the same. So make the radius smaller, you have to make the velocity quicker. So essentially what's the same thing is happening that when you have got a big bathtub, say, the water is very rarely perfectly still. I mean, you'd have to leave it for a very long time, no footprints, nothing, sort of no stomping around or anything. There's always going to be some tiny little movement in that fluid that gives it an angular momentum.

33:37And so then as the fluid starts draining down the plug hole, essentially what's happening is the radius of that fluid is getting smaller and smaller and smaller. And so it starts to become faster and faster and faster until you get this vortex as it goes down the drain. I think the interesting thing though, I mean, that's just like, oh, you get a little vortex and it gets faster when it gets smaller. But I think what's interesting is why this doesn't happen with sand. Sand, on the other hand, doesn't, right? Like each particle act pretty independently. Sand, on the other hand, has like really high internal friction.

34:10So as one particle rubs against another, it takes a lot of energy for those two to rub against each other. So this This is essentially why you don't get it with sand. If sand had less friction between each sand particle, then you would get it, but because of the exact properties of the fluid. And if sand was like that, it would be more like a liquid. Right, but sand is quite liquidy. Sand can be quite liquidy. It can be, for sure. Yeah. I think you would be perfectly able to model sand as liquid. Look, you can take those fluid dynamics equations, you can apply them to all sorts of stuff. But would there ever be a way to get like a big drum of sand, unplug a hole in the bottom and actually get it to spiral out?

34:54I think you could if you started off with oil the grains, make them all slippy as hell. But then is it going to feel like you've just got like a slurry of liquid? Here's a way to do it. You put them in honey. Okay. Okay. So with honey, you could still get a swirl, but it would be a very slow one. I mean, look, think about this in the limit, right? If you put a teaspoon of sand into a bath of water, then yeah, you'd still get the swirl. And so, right. So somewhere in between, it's still going to work. It's still going to work. It just depends, I guess, on the fluid properties of the sand that you're dealing with.

35:29I do like, you know, lava is another thing that you would think is solid, but actually has these really amazing liquid properties. Snow as well, like slurry. I really like all of those sort of taking what are solid objects but have these fluid-like properties and then playing with the equations with them.

35:55This segment is brought to you by Cancer Research UK. Now there are a few ways to spot a cancer scientist. Okay, lab coats, pipettes, microscopes, or you could ask them what their favorite CAR is. But if you do, don't expect the usual debate between convertibles or SUVs. They are way more likely to name a lab-made protein that is central to one of the most exciting breakthroughs in cancer treatment, CAR T cell therapy. Which is much cooler because this particular car chase doesn't involve high speeds and sharp turns. It's about hunting down and killing cancer cells. So today we are asking, can cars help us drive cancer out of the body?

36:42I mean, that's a good pun. Come on. It's really good. That whole bit was good. Okay. So what kind of car are we talking about? We're talking about CAR, C-A-R, which stands for chimeric antigen receptors. There are special molecules that can recognize and target specific features only found on the surface of cancer cells. So in CAR T cell therapy, T cells are removed from a patient's blood. These are, T cells are a kind of white blood cell that act like the elite special force of the immune system. And then genes are added to those T cells that make them grow CAR proteins on their surface. Those T cells are then put back into the patient's body and the CAR receptors effectively hunt down the cancer cells, bind to them and trigger an immune attack.

37:30eliminating the cancer. Now, the benefits of CAR T cell therapies over other cancer therapies are that one, CAR T cells live inside the body, so they're more able to check for and chase returning cancer cells. Also, they should only target cancer cells, not healthy ones. That means fewer long-term side effects, which is particularly important for children and young people whose developing bodies face lasting harm from harsh treatments originally made for adult cancers. The point is, the journey has started. How do we make sure, though, that it doesn't run out of gas? Okay, so the thing is, is that cancer cells, I mean, they're masters of disguise.

38:10They can change their appearance so that CAR T cells can't then recognise them. And that will switch off the immune system's alarm so that tumours can grow undetected. Now, scientists, they're creating CAR T cells that recognise two features on the surface of cancer cells rather than just one. but a drawback to the prototype is that that chasing cancer can end up exhausting your CAR T cells when you're looking for these multiple features exhaustion ends up hitting sooner right you know the CAR T cells it's like it's like they're running out of fuel essentially if we really want to push this analogy and that means then if you exhaust your CAR T cells that you can allow cancer cells to start dividing again and the cancer end up returning which is actually something that is quite common when treating children and young people.

38:58So Cancer Research UK, they are studying the CAR T cells that ended up lasting the longest in children and young people's clinical trials to find out what it was about them that gave them that extra mileage. And in doing so, they've identified this unique group of 20 genes that might be responsible for this stamina. they nicknamed them the persist sig um the name scientists come up with obviously right but here's the thing taking persist sig apart to understand uh what's going on there and make sure that it is turned on for all car t cells i mean it's a bit like sort of giving a bigger battery pack right a better engine something that will end up working for much longer yeah that's right so what are the challenges.

39:46Well, one of the challenges in production of CAR T cell therapies is that they must be tailor-made for each person from their own T cells, from their immune cells. Well, Cancer Research UK are developing off-the-shelf therapies using a specialist type of T cell. They can be mass-produced and they can be stored and then ready for immediate delivery. So Cancer Research UK scientists have tested this in the lab against a type of childhood leukemia, and it worked better than traditional CAR T cells. Now, while CAR T cell therapy is newer and it's currently limited to very specific blood cancers, these kind of innovations, they're opening up incredible new possibilities like targeting more types of cancer in both adults and children and young people.

40:32And that's what this research is all about. Over the last 50 years, more than 35 ,000 children and young people with cancer in the UK have survived into adulthood, thanks in part to Cancer Research UK's work. Their ambition is to revolutionise how better treatments are discovered, developed and made available to more people, including children and young people, so they can live longer, better lives, free from the fear of cancer. For more information about Cancer Research UK, their research, their breakthroughs and how you can support them, visit cancerresearchuk.org slash rest is science.

41:14you get very far that's how you predict where lava flow is going to go instantly um okay should we do another another question yeah let's do another question this one came from our subreddit f mother 22 asks how soft a material would someone have to land on for them to survive if they jumped off the world's tallest building now what i love about this one is the word soft put in quotation marks. It's not just like, how could you survive a fall off the tallest building? It's how soft. And that got me obsessed with what is softness. And as it turns out, there are ways to measure softness, but softness is a lot of different things.

42:00For a mattress, we can measure something like how much force does it take to push a four inch by four inch square down a quarter of an inch, right? That's literally what mattress companies do when they measure how soft a mattress is. Or in metric if they're in Europe and more sensible, but carry on. Yeah, look, I'm not saying that it's, you know, the best unit to use. I'm just saying that that's an industry standard that I found in my research, which is most certainly the American standard. But then a mattress being soft is different than like pajamas being soft or a tissue being soft. Now you could have the world's softest tissue and I would not want to land on that if I jumped off the tallest building.

42:44No, certainly not. In fact, I would much rather land on a big old messy pile of corrugated aluminum sheets than a soft tissue. Right. Because if you want to survive a fall off the tallest building, You don't want it to be like gentle, like soft on your skin. What you want is something that can absorb an enormous amount of kinetic energy. Because the problem with a fall is the blunt force trauma of hitting the ground where you accelerate really quickly. Your momentum changes really quickly. And that's what a force is. Force is the rate of change of momentum. The faster your velocity changes, the greater that force and the more harm can be done to your body.

43:37But if you can lose your velocity, lose your downward speed slowly, then the force is much smaller. So to survive a fall off the tallest building, you're going to want to minimize the G-force you experience when you stop. how much of a g-force is going to kill you really depends on you it depends on how you fall okay if you fall like the best way to fall um from from my research initially i thought you want to fall on your legs because they might like get shattered and broken but at least your head and your heart your torso but again it kind of depends i think that like the shock waves still go through your entire body if you fall like on your back and you just you want to increase the surface area that comes into contact with the ground to minimize the like the pressure on each individual part that lands yeah on each individual part of the body so i still don't know exactly how to fall because stunt people they tend to try and fall on their backs don't they yes yes exactly they rarely say, oh, just fall on your legs because then they'll shatter and break and break your fall.

44:58No, they don't want to break anything. So you've got to fall on a material that is going to at most subject you to like 10 or 15 Gs, I would say. You might even be able to land head first at 10 Gs and be okay. But like, I don't know, your legs, your butt could take like 100 if they had to. What this question reminded me of is a really cool question in Lewis Carroll Epstein's Thinking Physics. He points out what makes a hard hat work. And hard hats protect you from stuff hitting your head, not because they're so hard, but because they have so much give. And in the book, he says, we should really call them give hats because all they do is they say, look, a hammer's going to hit your head.

45:46If a hammer hits your skull, the hammer goes from really fast to zero in like a fraction of a second. And that's an enormous force. So that's why hard hats sit up above your head. If you've ever worn one, you know that a hard hat is actually this like plastic crown that supports a little dome that just hovers over your head. And that distance means that there's time for the hammer to slow down. Right. Of course. That's the thing that is essentially changing is the amount of time. Yes. It's a give hat. And so you want things that have give and a single tissue on the ground might be soft in your hands, but it's going to get compressed and you're going to hit the concrete underneath immediately, but a giant pile of, you know, corrugated sheets of metal, they're going to crumple and dent and absorb all this energy over time, making it a less painful experience, even though each individual piece is harder.

46:49So, okay, a couple of things that this question reminds me of. One is that I once went to a factory that makes the corrugated iron, I think, that you get on motorways between the two lanes of a motorway. And I've always looked at that stuff and been like, that stuff looks flimsy, you know? Like I felt a bit nervous about it. I don't want to run into that. That looks really super flimsy. But actually the design of it is complete genius because, so in part it's bend sort of that W shape for exactly that reason, that that will take the impact, that will crumple, that will take some of the energy of the collision.

47:29But the other thing is that what happens is the posts that it's stuck into, as your car, if you kind of come off, if you veer off and you hit it at sort of high speed, basically the posts are designed to fail, right, to a certain degree, at a particular speed. and then the whole thing sort of becomes like an elastic band, right? This sort of stretches inwards and then slowly returns. And crucially, they are not designed to make you come to a complete stop because if you come to a complete stop, if you crashed into it and it slows you down, for one thing, the force that you would be under would be absolutely gigantic.

48:11It'd be like, you know, hitting a concrete wall. But secondly, the cars that are immediately behind you, you would then give them much less time to be able to veer away from you. So actually what they are trying to do, if you imagine you've got a sort of a helicopter view of a motorway, if you imagine that there is this spot that you are in that your car is occupying, that is moving forwards at a particular speed, what those crash barriers are designed to do is to slow you down slightly and return you back into your same spot in the traffic, right? So that then you slow down while going straight and other cars have more time to move around.

48:54It's absolute genius, right? It looks like it doesn't work at all, but it's genius. And it's great for teaching physics. Even when there are concrete barricades on the side of the road, they tend to have sloped sides, like little ramped sides. So when you hit them, your wheel gets pushed back into the road. But yeah, ultimately, surviving these falls or crashes is about stopping distance being quite large. That way you're not subjected to a big immediate impulse. And so like cars built today are built to crumple. If you're in an old car that's like really solid and it's so well constructed and you hit something like a brick wall, you go from 100 kilometers an hour to zero within like a centimeter and you die.

49:41But if we can slow you down to zero over the course of 30 or 60 centimeters and just have the front of the car totally crumple up and take all that energy, then you never necessarily, I mean, 100 kilometers an hour is pretty fast. Don't hit anything at that speed. But the point is that we want you to slow down more slowly. Cover more distance while you're decelerating and you will have a smaller force at any one time. Point is you want to fall into something that can absorb all your kinetic energy and do it over a long period of time. So ideally, it's something that's like full of a bunch of air.

50:15An airbag is great. A net is pretty good because what are nets made out of? Basically, just the air in between the ropes or the wires. In fact, back in 2016, a guy named Luke Atkins sky dove from 25 ,000 feet without a parachute. all he had to save him was a 100 foot by 100 foot net on the ground whoa which from 25 000 feet is like the period on a sentence okay it was nothing and he sky dove with two friends that did have parachutes and they were there to make sure that he was on the right trajectory and then at the last minute they parachuted right and then they just let him use his own body as basically a sail to kind of guide himself towards that net and this net was like a hundred feet off the ground it had air pressure cannons in it that kind of pulled the net to keep it from from him from sinking too deep too fast but he hit the net going about 120 miles an hour and he was fine oh my gosh no thank you why what did he get no well what he got was a mention on the rest is science.

51:27That's true. So it was worth it, but I can barely watch the video because he was wearing like a camera as he did it. So you can see it. And you're just the whole time you're thinking, Oh, you're too far to the left dude. Move, move, move, move, move. And he does hit like the kind of the left edge of the net. And you're like, Oh my gosh. But again, the net was just so easy for his body to move. And it had so much give that he was fine hitting water. As we know at a high speed can't move it out of the way fast enough it's you may as well hit concrete but a net is really good it's it's soft when it comes to impacts i think i said that there was two things that this question reminded me of one was the one was the the sort of crumpling in the in the car um sorry the other thing is this really amazing essay by uh holdane in the 1920s which was called on being the right size and essentially it was asking the question of if you did fall from a great height, from a very tall building or an aeroplane or whatever it might be, is there a point at which you could act as your own parachute?

52:32And so what Haldane writes in this essay, he's imagining a sort of disused mineshaft, right? And what would happen if you threw certain animals down? No animals were harmed in the making of this essay. What would happen if you threw certain animals down this mineshaft. And a mouse would be absolutely fine. It's small enough that it could act as its own parachute. Its terminal velocity is not high enough. It's completely fine. A rat would be a bit like dazed. A dog maybe would have a few broken bones. And then in this essay, the way I remember it, right, and I am doing this off the cuff. So again, forgive me if I'm getting this wrong.

53:13But he said that a pit pony, if it weren't sent down a disused mineshaft, could only be described as a splash at the bottom. So the other way to survive this is just be smaller. Just be smaller. Yeah. It's so funny that you bring that up, Hannah, because I literally quoted that last weekend at my daughter's birthday party. I was mentioning, we went to a place where there's a lot of climbing. And I mentioned like, oh yeah, I mean, a kid can climb because they just hit the ground and they're fine. But if I fell, I would splash. And this is an actual just property of physics. Like when you, in geometry, if you increase the volume of an object, its surface area doesn't grow as fast.

53:56So yeah, a horse is really heavy and it doesn't have as much surface area. Now, I don't know if I've told you this story, but I did an actual experiment on this in a unreleased, unaired pilot for CNN called Michael Stevens Unlimited. No. And it was the whole idea. This was back in like, I don't know, 2013, 2014. It was like, what if Michael Stevens had unlimited money? And I was like, I want to test out like throwing animals off of buildings. And we found out that there's no way to kill an ant by throwing it off a building because their surface area is so large compared to their volume. their terminal velocity is just never very fast at all.

54:38I mean, they are a parachute that is alive. And so we threw ants off of this building, like a 20-story building in Los Angeles. But we thought, how are we going to know that they survived? Like, we can't just run down there and find an ant and say, oh, it's okay. So what we had to do is we had to buy this radioactive paint from United Nuclear and we painted the ants with a radioactive paint, threw them off the building. And then I went down onto the sidewalk with a Geiger counter and found the ants we had painted and showed that they were just fine. And they were local ants, by the way. So they were just like, hey, I'm home, but I'm in a different room now.

55:16That's amazing. That's amazing. I love that story. And I love doing that experiment. I got to get the footage one of these days. It's going to be weird to like release some at some point because I look so much younger. but it was a really fun it was a really fun show yeah i really enjoyed that thank you very much for that question f mother 22 um let us know if you ever meet f mother 21 doesn't feel like it would be a the first 21 were taken or maybe maybe that person was born in 1922 hey maybe they were and they're 104 and they're listening to the rest is science every day maybe indeed uh yes as ever So if you would like to send us in your questions, you can send them to us at therestedscience at goalhanger.com.

56:01And we'll see you next time. Certainly will. Bye-bye.

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