The Terracotta Army (Radio Edit)

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1:43Hello and welcome to You're Dead to Me, the Radio 4 comedy podcast that takes history seriously. My name is Greg Jenner. I'm a public historian, author and broadcaster, and former chief nerd on the BBC comedy show Horrible Histories. And today we are off to ancient China to dig deep into one of the most astonishing archaeological discoveries of all time, the first emperor of China's tomb, guarded by his famous terracotta warriors. And to help me do that, I am joined by two very special guests. In History Corner, she's Professor of Modern Chinese History and Literature at Birkbeck, University of London, and specialises in the relationship between culture and modern Chinese nation-building.

2:20She's written countless academic publications and several books, including two prize-winning books on the Opium War and Maoism. It's the fantastic Professor Julia Lovell. Welcome, Julia. Thrilled to have you here. It's great to be here. Thanks so much for inviting me. And in Comedy Corner, not only has he previously bossed it on Taskmaster, Live at the Apollo and Havocon News for You, but he's got a hilarious stand-up special on Netflix. It's Philly Philly Wang Wang. Welcome back, Phil. Hi, great thanks for having me back. Yes, don't forget the last wang. It is very important. I'm so happy to be back on You're Dead to Me.

2:50And last time out, we talked a bit about your education, the Malaysian school system. You hadn't done that much global history. But I'm curious as to whether the first emperor of China, the Terracotta Warriors, may be something you do know about? Only sort of culturally speaking, because my father's Chinese-Malaysian. And so there is an awareness of China and Chinese histories as sort of a kind of motherland. But we still don't know the history all that well, actually. So what Chinese Malaysians know about Chinese history is usually what they pick up in the period dramas, the Chinese period dramas, of which there are hundreds and hundreds and hundreds.

3:25They're always besieging a fortress. And there's so many of those shows. And they're very popular in Malaysia. But aside from that, no, I don't really know very much. So, what do you know?

3:40This is the So What Do You Know, where I have a go at guessing what you, our lovely listener, knows about our subject. And while the terracotta warriors have a pretty good name recognition, I think, but in terms of pop culture, if you're a Terry Pratchett fan, you may remember that in one of his Discworld novels, the protagonist Rincewind not only discovers a terracotta army in an imperial tomb, but also uses some VR technology to go and control it, which is very nifty. Less nifty would be the Hollywood representation of the first emperor in the film The Mummy, Tomb of the Dragon Emperor, which is frankly a bit dodgy.

4:11But the big question of course is who made the terracotta warriors and when and why and how and who found them? Well let's find out shall we? Julia, when we're talking about the terracotta army, we're talking about elements of the funeral complex belonging to Qin Shi Huangdi, who's the first emperor of China. Who's this guy? How far ago are we talking? Well, the first emperor of China was born Yingzheng in 259 BCE in the kingdom of Qin in what is now Gansu and Shanxi provinces. The northern half of what's now China was divided between a number of smaller states which fought each other for control of land and resources.

4:52Now by 259 BC there were only seven of those states left on the field of which Qin was the largest and the most successful. And it's thought that over the next 40 years Qin wins out because it has the most thorough, the most controlling and ruthless state apparatus. And Ying Zheng succeeded to this throne in 246 BCE at the age of only 13. By the time he was 38, he'd conquered each of the other states and unified them for the first time into a single empire in 221 BCE. And at that point, he took the name Qin Shi Huangdi, or Great August First Emperor of Qin, as goes the literal translation. At 13, he comes to the throne.

5:36By 38, he's conquered all of China. It's quite an achievement. I mean, I'm 39 and I feel like I've maybe not done anything with my life. Yeah, what kingdoms have you unified, Greg? I've been meaning to ask for this. It's interesting hearing Cheng Shihang Di because that name suddenly reignited all these memories of my father just being obsessed with Cheng Shihang Di for a long time. He unifies China through constant war, then consolidates power by introducing law codes, new coinage, standardized measurements, building roads, introducing writing uniform across the country, all sensible policies.

6:08and then he also forcibly relocates 700 ,000 people to be forced labourers to build his pet projects. He also burns books. He murders Confucian scholars by burying them alive. So he's quite a ruthless character. All the while doing this, he's also busy juggling another huge engineering project in China. Do you want to guess what it is, Phil? Might it be a wall? Not just any wall. A pretty good wall? A very good wall? Is that what it's called? The Very Excellent Wall of China? Something like that. It's on the tip of my tongue. Absolutely. Otherwise known as the Great Wall of China. Yeah, that's one of his.

6:44So clearly, we have an emperor who wants to make a big splash in life. He's building these huge monuments. He's introducing huge new policies. But he's also really wanting a glorious death. And this funerary complex, they start planning it when he's a teenager. And it's built in Shanxi province in sort of central China, but at the time, slightly off centre, I suppose. And it ends up as being the biggest mausoleum in the history of the world. But actually, Chung Shia Wandi also is planning to live forever, Julia. How do you plan to live forever while simultaneously building your enormous tomb? With the first emperor, you have this strange combination of huge self-confidence and paranoid frailty.

7:25So on the one hand, he proclaims himself first emperor of this unprecedentedly vast state. He is super controlling. He builds a government to micromanage ordinary people's daily lives. But on the other, from this surprisingly young age, he seems terrified of death by human or supernatural forces. So he was desperate to find an elixir to eternal life. And he believed this might be contained in cinnabar, an ore of mercury, which he ate a good deal of. He died in 210 BCE, aged only 49. Ironically, probably partly due to mercury poisoning. so the first emperor died while touring the eastern part of his empire and his advisors initially decided to cover this up perhaps so they could maneuver the succession to suit themselves so they pretended that the emperor was refusing to leave his carriage and to mask the stink of his corpse which was busily rotting while they transported it back to his mausoleum the The Chin's former advisors filled his carriage with fish to cover up the smell.

8:37You know you smell bad when people are like, we've got to cover this up. Put a load of fish on him. That'll be better. Let's talk about the discovery of the terracotta warriors. Fragments were discovered, along with some bronze arrowheads, in a field by a family in 1974. And then archaeologists went, hang on a second. And so they showed up and they were astonished by the terracotta warriors because they were not expecting them at all. Yeah, that's right. The existence of the tomb itself is described by Sima Qian, who's arguably the most famous of ancient Chinese historians, writing in about 100 BCE.

9:13But his history doesn't mention the warriors. So modern archaeologists were amazed by what these farmers found. It's arguably the most extraordinary archaeological discovery of the 20th century. It's also fitting that the mausoleum of an emperor obsessed with living forever came out around the same time as the Bee Gees staying alive. Do you think that's nice? Okay, so we've already heard, Phil, that the first emperor was pretty extra in his own life. How big do you think this mausoleum complex is? People usually go by football fields, don't they? I'm going to say it's two football fields. The area that the mausoleum complex occupies below the ground is about 56 square kilometers.

10:03So the pits containing the famous terracotta warriors are only a small part of this complex. There's an artificial mound covering the emperor's tomb. So nowadays it looks like a forested pyramid about 65 meters high, 350 square meters at the base. and below ground the tomb cavity was also surrounded by walls and by hundreds of other burial pits containing incredible things of which the terracotta warrior pits are just a few. Yeah Phil you've said two football pitches well a football pitch is 0.005 kilometers squared right this is 56 kilometers squared which is bigger than Oxford. Yeah, that's quite a good bit bigger.

10:52OK, fair enough. So we have the ancient Qin historian, Semetien, writing about 100 years after the tomb was built. And he described the complex like this. The tomb was filled with models of palaces and pavilions and offices, as well as fine vessels, precious stones and rarities. Artisans were ordered to fix up crossbows so that any thief breaking in would be shot. All the country's streams, the Yellow River and the Yangtze, were reproduced in quicksilver and by some mechanical means were made to flow into a miniature ocean. The candles were made of whale oil to ensure they're burning for the longest possible time.

11:29This is pure Hollywood stuff. This is booby traps and everything. Do you know what quicksilver is? Quicksilver, I'm not sure, but I bet Chung Shih Huangdi loved a pint or two of it. It sounds right up his street. You're absolutely right. He was drinking it because quicksilver is basically mercury. It's rivers of mercury. There you go. Guarding this enormous complex was a course to these extraordinary terracotta warriors. How many soldiers were in there? How many terracotta soldiers, Phil, do you think were in this army? Is it like 2 ,000 or something? Hey, that's a good guess. That is how many have been excavated so far.

12:03Ah, yes, okay. But we think there are 7 ,000 down there, Julia. Is that right? Yes, that is a working estimate. But there are also many other things down in the tomb complex. So through much of Chinese history, people want to be buried with items they think will guarantee them comfort and status in the afterlife, which could include servants and dependents like wives, as well as handy, desirable objects. So I guess underpinning this idea is the belief that the afterlife will be very similar to the mortal world. Now, like several ancient states, early Chinese societies practiced human sacrifice.

12:48Here, the theory is that if servants and wives are killed and placed in the tomb, they'll go on the journey to the afterlife with the deceased and serve him there. But by the Qin, you also have the idea that you don't always have to have real human corpses down there to revivify in the tomb. You can have high quality replicas and models. although the Chin Mausoleum also has evidence of some burial of humans whether they were alive or dead at the time. But there's a huge range and richness of objects found in the emperor's burial complex and these objects give us a good idea of what he himself saw as important.

13:28There's his army of bodyguards plus hundreds of sets of armour made of stone tiles. There are statues of stable boys, charioteers, chariots, horses, plus real life hay and straw and skeletons of actual horses. There's a pit of terracotta officials. So you'll have bureaucrats to run your state in the afterlife. So there is still tax after death, I'm afraid. Yes, fine. We hear a lot about the terracotta warriors, but not enough about the terracotta accountants, the real heroes. The afterlife isn't there. There's also an entertainment pit, which contains means terracotta acrobats, strongmen, musicians, and life-size bronze birds.

14:12So an incredible cornucopia of things. It's interesting, the Chinese tradition of transferring objects into the afterlife, it still goes on now. So you're growing up in Malaysia, every year you go to sweep your sort of ancestors' graves. We tidy up, you clean up the graves and you burn offerings, you burn gifts, fake cash, you burn that. And the idea is that when things burn, they go up to heaven and they go to your grandparents and they can use them but it updates as time goes by so now you can buy paper cars and burn those and the idea is that they go to heaven your grandfather's got a new mercedes and now you can buy paper iphones and ipads oh wow julia can you tell us a bit more about the three main pits where they've been discovered and what's in them These three main pits are about a mile to the east of the tomb.

15:04So they represent the eastern frontier of the burial complex. So pit one, which is the biggest, has the main army, perhaps around 6 ,000 soldiers, 160 chariots. and the soldiers were all originally set out in almost 40 single file lines. In front of them there's an advance guard of archers and I should point out that they were all armed to the teeth with battle-ready bronze weapons. Then pit two has a mix of cavalry, archers and war chariots. Pit three contains high-ranking officers so it seems to be a command post and as you say there's also a fourth empty pit. And the fact that it was empty might be a sign that the site was unfinished when Qin Shi Huangdi suddenly died and had to be buried.

16:00Yeah. It reminds me of a military parade that someone like Kim Jong-un or Vladimir Putin might hold just to show how powerful he is. It's the same thing, isn't it? That's interesting, yeah. It's holding a military parade in the afterlife to show everyone what a big dog you are. Exactly that. I mean, Julia, what can we learn from the actual weaponry and stuff they're wearing? Well, the first thing it tells us is exactly, as Phil surmised, that the Qin state, then empire, was an intensely militarised society. And that's why the Qin succeeded in destroying all the other states to found its unified empire.

16:38Every household had to supply an able-bodied male for the state's conscript army, and then strict army discipline made them ruthless fighters. The terracotta figures enable us to visualise what this extraordinary army would have looked like. You've got the unarmoured rank and file at the front, then you've got armoured fighters and archers distributed down the flanks. And yeah, they were armed with literally cutting-edge bronze weapons. finds in pit one included crossbow triggers swords lances spears and over 40 000 arrowheads so these weapons were clearly meant to be used analysis has shown that blades were sharpened and many are so well preserved that they'd still be lethal today it also goes to show just how much he believed this was real right it's how much he believed in the afterlife and that these things would transfer over because you don't commit something like this if it's just a hunch.

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19:15This enormous army, is he expecting to have to fight his way into the afterlife? So the first emperor was profoundly paranoid and controlling. On his journey to conquering China, he and his armies had killed hundreds of thousands of people from other states to the east of Qin. As you'll remember, the pits containing the terracotta warriors are on the eastern side of the tomb complex. And one interpretation is that Qin Shi Huangdi feared that his enemies in the afterlife, as in this world, would attack him from this direction. So this monumental army of bodyguards would protect him from the vengeance of all the many people he killed in this world.

20:01So, Phil, we've already touched on this slightly, but what do you think archaeologists have found in the personal burial chamber, the pyramid of the first emperor himself? A cooler full of bottles of mercury for the big guy. I imagine sort of creature comforts. Food and wine and things like that. Maybe a rug, a nice rug. Quite sort of homely. Yeah, if this is like his private chambers. We've actually sort of lured you into a trap there because actually we don't know what is in his private chambers. It hasn't been opened. Julia, they found it in 1974. it's clearly the most exciting bit of the site surely why haven't we thrown a drone in there with a camera on it to have a little look why can't we open it?

20:47There are a few reasons so one there are concerns for the safety of excavators a survey discovered very high levels of surprise mercury in the tomb there are underground walls with a void in the centre of the site probably for the tomb of the emperor himself. So all that survey information tantalisingly validates Sumer Chen's remarkable description, but it also generates concerns about the stability of the site. But I think the biggest concern is for conservation. When the terracotta warriors were first brought out of the ground, they were brightly painted, but within minutes the colours faded after they were exposed to the air.

21:35Imagine how special it must have felt to see the Terracotta Warriors in colour, live in colour. That's amazing. I didn't realise they had colour on them. I guess they would have done. Yeah. And so it's the idea that in this chamber would be the actual remains of Chin Chiu Hongdi himself? That's exactly right. Right, right, wow. So we have this extraordinary mausoleum complex. It's enormous. But we want to now turn to who made all this stuff. How on earth did they build this 2 ,000 years ago? Who's building it? Yeah, it's a genuinely monumental undertaking. So we know from early written histories, more than 700 ,000 conscripts from all over the empire are supposed to have been moved over to work on the mausoleum and also on the emperor's new capital nearby.

22:23you would have needed access ramps you would have needed to divert watercourses you need to build a huge perimeter wall put loads of burial goods inside then of course cover it all over with a pyramid about 80 meters tall with yet more buildings on top of that then you need to add to this the manufacture and transport of all the goods involved and it seems plausible that only estate like the chin, which extracted conscript labour so rationally, but also so ruthlessly, could have seen this project through. Gosh, yeah. Incredible. Phil, you studied engineering at Cambridge. If we needed a replica made, would you be willing to project manage that for us?

23:04Oh, happily, yeah. A replica made of the whole complex? Yeah, ideally. I mean, what are your rates? I mean, let's talk budgets. I'll do it for the exposure, to be honest. I'll just do it for the exposure. It's always good to have a plan B, eh, Phil? Julia, this is an astonishingly enormous project, 700 ,000 conscripted labourers, and we have the pit in which they are buried too, the workers. Can you give us some sobering insights into the working conditions for this labour force? Sure. There are mass graves about 300 metres to the west of the first emperor's tomb. Alongside the skeletons, archaeologists have found fragments of pottery, which tell us where they came from, if they were serving out a penal sentence, what their crime had been.

23:59The bones which were discovered in the graves, Some of them were thickened with evidence of arthritis. Others had fractures or showed bone adaptation to intense use of muscles. So this suggests that these people were engaged in heavy labour before death. And a sinister aspect to this, I think, is the secrecy surrounding the site. The fact that the memory of the terracotta warriors never appeared on the historical record. So this suggests that the workers may simply have been killed at the end of the work. when the emperor was interred to keep the site secret and sacrosanct. And would a large portion of this workforce been taken from the peoples of the conquered kingdoms?

24:42Or was it just everyone in the kingdom, whether they were chin or conquered? So the DNA analysis of these bones suggests that they came from many different parts of the territory. So I think they could have been prisoners of war. but the chin legal system was very tough very ruthless so it didn't matter what status you were what ethnicity you were within the original chin state too okay so the laborers building the site are having a horrible time and there's an enormous number of them but can we now move on to the skilled artisans and talk more about the kind of the sculpture the craft that goes into making these.

25:27Phil, we're going to show you another photo. What do you see when we show you some of the faces of the terracotta warriors? So this is a photograph, a close-up of about 12 soldiers or so, and they've all got the same uniform, they're all wearing the same armour, but they are all distinct. They have all got their own face, they've even got their own sort of posture, and they seem to be of different ages. So Julia, Phil has identified that their faces look unique. Is their composition completely unique? Are they coming out of moulds? How are they made? Is it a mix and match approach? How do you make a terracotta warrior?

26:01It seems that the larger parts of the figures were done by less skilled labourers. So local clay from the soil was pressed into moulds to make torsos, limbs, hands, heads and so on. There are moulds for the heads, aren't there? Was it eight moulds? Yes, but the individuality of the faces suggests that they were completed by skilled artisans who'd shaped by hand facial details such as eyebrows, ears, beards and hairstyles like plaits and top knots and chignons and so on. Phil, how do you think overseers could identify and punish any craftsman who wasn't hitting the standards? A bad review on Yelp.

26:43We know a huge amount about the process because of inscriptions on the actual sculptures themselves that tell us who made them and who was their overseer, right? Most of the weapons in the tomb were inscribed with date of manufacture, plus the name of the craftsman who made them, and then the official responsible for that craftsman, and so on and so forth, in a long line of accountability that in some cases went all the way up to the Prime Minister of the Empire. If I knew I'd done a bad job, I'd be quite tempted to write someone else's name on it. You know what I mean? Especially if I didn't like them.

27:21I made one of them with three thumbs. I'd be like, this one was Jeff. Jeff did this. The nuance window!